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WRINKLES 

AND  ^'^i'Y  tk 

RECIPES, 


COMPILED   PROM    THE 


Scientific   American. 


A  Collection  of  Practical  Suggestions,  Processes,  and  Directions  lor 

THE   MECHANIC, 

THE   ENGINEER, 

THE   FARMER,  and 

THE   HOUSEKEEPER. 


I1L.1L,  u©tiia.tje:i>. 


EDITED    BT 

p  ^??^  Pi  iv    B  E  jsr  J  A  Tvi  I  ]sr. 


Revisers  and  ContriMors : 

Professor  R.   H.   THURSTON,   C.E. 

Professor  P.   H.  VANDER  TTEYDE,   M.D. 

RICHARD    H.   BUEL,  Mechanical  Engineer. 

JOSHUA   ROSE,  Mechanical  Engineer. 


Xeav-York  ; 

TI.    ?^.    IVrXJNINr,    FXJBLISHER, 
3r    Park    Row. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1875,  by 

H.  N.  MUNN  AND  PARK  BENJAMIN, 
in  the  Office  of  the  T.ihrnrian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


THEGEnYCENlER 
LIBRARY 


If  any  worker  in  five  great  army  of  those  in, 
whose  intelligent  labor  lies  the  surest  foundation 
for  the  prosperity  of  us  all,  finds  among  the  sug- 
gestions here  compiled  one  tJvought,  as  it  is  hoped 
he  may  many,  ivhich  shall  lighten  his  toil  or 
aid  him  in  the  production  of  better  work,  then 
the  editor  sincerely  trusts  that  that  worker  will 
deem  this  little  volume  as  prepared,  for  his  es- 
pecial benefit,  and  to  him  especially  dedicated. 


PREFACE. 


The  aim  iu  the  following  pages  has  been  to  compile  a  collec- 
tion of  suggestions  for  the  every-day  use  of  the  workiug-man,in 
his  shop,  about  his  dwelling,  or  in  his  household.  The  book  is  not 
an  encyclopaedia  of  recipes,  nor  does  it  make  any  pretensions  to 
that  title  ;  on  the  contrary,  a  very  large  number  of  formulae  have 
purposely  been  omitted,  because  they  are,  for  the  most  part,  at- 
tainable in  other  and  more  extensive  works.  Preference  has  been 
given  to  practical  hints,  and,  while  the  majority  of  these  have 
been  carefully  gathered  and  condensed  from  the  back  files  of  the 
Scientific  American,  and  more  especially  from  the  letters  of  cor- 
respondents of  that  paper,  a  goodly  proportion  are  entirely  new 
and  fresh,  and  have  been  prepared  expressly  for  this  book. 

For  the  contribution  of  a  large  part  of  the  matter  in,  and  for 
the  general  supervision  of  the  department  of  Mechanics,  the  edi- 
tor is  indebted  to  that  thorough  workman,  Mr.  Joshua  Rose.  To 
Mr.  Richard  H.  Buel  (whose  articles  are  signed  "  B.")  similar  ac- 
knowledgments are  owing  for  valuable  papers  on  boilers,  engines, 
and  other  to|)ics  in  the  department  of  Engineering.  The  general 
revision  of  the  last-mentioned  department  has  been  the  labor  of 
Professor  R.  H.  Thurston,  of  the  Stevens  Institute,  as  has  the  si- 
milar overlooking  of  the  department  of  Technology,  that  of  Pro- 
fessor P.  H.  Van  der  Weyde.  To  both  of  these  distinguished 
gentlemen,  as  well  as  to  Messrs.  Munn  &  Co.,  the  publishers  of 
the  Scientific  American,  who  have  most  kindly  afforded  the  facili- 
ties for  the  preparation  of  this  work,  the  cordial  acknowledgments 
of  the  editor  are  due. 

New-Yokk,  1877. 


CONTENTS, 


* 


* 


Subjects  will  he  found  arranged   nlphahetically  under   the 


below-indexed  subheadings  of  the  various  departments. 


Mechanics:  p^ge 

Master  Tools  and  their  Uses 7 

Tools 16 

Mechanical  Shop  Wrinkles  and  Directions .    38 

Engineering: 

Testing  Materials 55 

The  Engine  and  its  Appendages 57 

The  Boiler  and  its  Attachments 87 

Belts,  Pulleys,  and  Sliafting 109 

Practical  Technology  : 

Cements,  Glues,  and  Moulding  Compositions 135 

Metal-Working  Hints  and  Kecipes 140 

Simple  Instrunii'uts  and  their  Uses 150 

Recipes  for  the  Preparation  of  wood 156 

The   Preservation  and  Preparation   of   Natural    History 
Specimens  158 

Painting,  Ciilding,  and  Varnishing  Recipes 166 

Hints  about  Drawing  and  Sketching 171 

Simi)le  (lalvanic  Batteries  and  Electroplating  Recipes. . .  .178 

Useful  Chemical  Recipes  for  Detection  of  Adulterations, 
etc 181 

The  Farm  : 

Farm  Buildings 189 

The  Dairy 202 

Farm  Hints  and  Reciiies 204 

Household  Hints 223 


MECHANICS. 


MASTER-TOOLS  >     THEIR     MANUFACTURE     AND 

USE. 

The  master-tools,  here  illustrated  and  described,  comprise  all 
that  are  necessary  for  plain  machine- work  in  every  description  of 
metal  ;  and  if  they  are  made  of  the  precise  shape,  and  according 
to  the  given  instructions,  they  will  perform  the  full  amount  of 
duty  here  allotted  to  them,  which,  though  it  may  appear  to  be 
unusually  great,  may  be  thoroughly  relied  upon  for  metal  of  any 
ordinary  degree  of  hardness.  Xor  can  any  less  amount  of  duty 
be  obtained  from  them  without  evidencing  inferior  mechanical 
skill  either  in  making  or  using  the  tool.  It  is  true  economy  to  ob- 
tain from  a  cutting  tool  its  utmost  amount  of  duty,  which,  though 
it  may  entail  a  little  more  drawing  out  and  grinding  of  the  tool 
in  a  given  time,  does  not  involve  anymore  as  compared  to  the 
quantity  of  work  performed.  It  is  well  within  the  mark  to  say 
that  at  least  one  third  more  duty,  in  a  given  time,  may  be  ob- 
tained from  cutting-tools  for  metals  (used  in  all  machines  having 
variable  speeds  and  feeds,  such  as  the  lathe  and  the  shaping- 
machine),  than  is  obtained  in  the  usual  practice  of  our  machine- 
shops,  especially  in  the  larger  ones. 

Boring-tool  for  Brass. — The  boring  tool  for  brass-work, 
here  shown,  is  a  standard  tool  for  either  roughing  out  or  finish- 


BORING-TOOL   FOR   BRASS. 


ing,  both  of  which  duties  it  will  perform  equally  well.  It  is  bent 
further  round  at  the  end  than  is  the  boring-tool  for  wrought-iron, 
to  prevent  it  from  jarring  or  chattering.  It  is  a  master-tool  in 
ev^ery  sense  of  the  word.  It  should  be  hardened  right  out,  and 
used  with  a  quick  speed  and  light  feed,  no  matter  how  deep  the 


8 


MECHANICS. 


cut  is.  To  prevent  chattering  or  jarring  when  extending  far  out 
from  the  tool-post,  or  when  it  is  very  slight  in  body,  it  should 
have  the  toi)  face  depressed  toward  the  cutting  edge.  When  this 
tool  is  a  stout  one,  the  point  may  be  ground  more  round,  which 
will  make  it  cut  to  finer  finish. 

BoHiNG-TOOL  KOH  Wrought-iron  OR  Steel. — For  turning  Out 
small  holes,  the  tool  here  represented  has  no  equal,  providing  it 


BORING-TOOI,  FOR  WROl'ClIT-IltON   OH   STEEL. 

be  made  of  the  precise  shape  shown,  the  reasons  for  which  are  as 
follows  :  The  cutting  end  must  not  be  bent,  in  forging,  any  fur- 
ther round,  because,  in  that  case,  the  strain  placed  upon  the  tool 
by  the  cut  will  be  in  a  direction  tending  to  revolve  the  tool  in 
the  tool-post,  giving  the  tool  a  corresponding  tendency  to  spring 
away  from  its  cut  ;  and  further,  because  so  stout  a  tool  could  not 
be  got  into  the  same  size  of  hole.  The  degree  of  bend  or  angle 
of  the  centre-line  of  the  bent  end  to  the  centre-line  of  the  length 
of  the  body  of  the  tool,  causes  the  strain  of  the  cut  to  be  placed 
comparatively  endwise  of  the  tool,  endeavoring  to  force  it  back 
into  the  tool-post,  and  thus  ])lac('s  flic  strain  in  the  direction  in 
which  the  tool  is  best  caiJabU;  of  withstanding  it.  The  keenness 
and  shape  given  to  the  top  face  of  the  tool  make  the  cutting  edge 
perform  its  duty  on  the  front  edge,  which  again  tends  to  place 
the  strain  endwise  on  the  tool,  operating,  by  the  strain  on  the  top 
face  of  the  tool  (caused  by  its  bending  tlie  sliaviiig),  to  keep  the 
tool  to  its  cut  by  giving  it  an  inclination  to  fct-d  itself  forward, 
thus  rclifving  tho  feed-screw  and  nut  of  tlie  slide-rest  of  a  part 
of  tlie  duty  of  f.-eding.  The  cutting  edge  should  not,  even  when 
tlie  too]  is  newly  forged,  stand  much,  if  any,  above  the  horizontal 
ydane  of  the  top  of  the  body  of  the  tofd,  otlierwise  so  stout  a  tool 
can  not  be  got  into  a  given  size  of  hole,  a  consideration  which  is 
f)f  the  utujost  importance  ;  because  boring-tools,  from  their  com- 
parative slightness,  especially  in  lotii:  holes,  are  a|)t,  under  the 
most  favorable  of  conditions,  to  spring  away  from  the  cut  as  the 
cutting  proceeds  toward  tlie  back  end  of  the  hole,  thus  making 
the  latter  a  tajier,  of  Avliich  thi^  back  end  has  the  smalli'st  diame- 
ter, necessitating  neveiiil  line  finishing  cuts  in  order  to  mak«^  a 
parallel  hole.  If,  however,  <'very  means  is  taken  to  use  as  stout 
a  tool  as  the  size  of  tlie  liole  will  admit,  the  boring-tool  will  bore 
u  very  true  and  smooth  hole. 


MECHANICS. 


9 


In  using  these  tools,  it  is  best  to  employ  a  comparatively  quick 
speed  and  lio^bt  feed,  no  matter  what  the  depth  of  the  cut  may 
be.  They  should  be  tempered  to  a  very  light  straw  if  the  tool  is 
slight,  and  otherwise  hardened  right  out ;  and  the  work  should 
be  freely  supplied  with  soapy  water.  For  use  on  copper,  the 
top  face  should  be  ground  more  hollow,  so  that  the  cutting  edge 
will  be  much  more  keen  than  is  here  shown.  Whenever  there 
is  sutficient  room  in  the  hole,  a  stout  bar  of  iron  or  steel  should 
be  held  in  the  tool-post,  and  a  short  tool  secured  by  set-screw  in 
the  end  of  the  bar,  thus  securing  greater  rigidity  than  is  pos- 
sessed by  a  boring-tool,  and  facilitating  the  forging  and  grinding 
of  the  cutting-tool 

Finishing-Tool  for  Cast-Iron. — Cast-iron  may  be  finished 
true  and  smoothly  by  a  tool  having  a  much  broader  cutting  and 
scraping  surface  than  is  applicable  to  any  other  metal  ;  and  we 
are  therefore  enabled  to  apply  to  it,  for  finishing  purposes,  the 


FINISHING-TOOL  FOR  CAST-ERON. 

tool  above  illustrated,  setting  it  so  that  its  square  nose  is  placed 
quite  parallel  with  the  work,  and  feeding  it  with  a  feed  almost 
as  coarse  as  the  width  of  the  square  nose,  say  8  revolutions  of  the 
lathe  per  in.  of  tool  travel  on  small  work,  and  3  revolutions  per 
ditto  for  large  work.  The  tool  is  held  with  the  cutting  edge  aa 
close  to  the  tool-post  as  can  possibly  be  convenient,  and  the 
cutting  speed  is  about  25  to  30  feet  per  minute  on  small  work, 
and  18  feet  on  large  work,  the  tool  being  hardened  right  out  iu 
all  cases. 

FiNisHixo-TooL  for  WRoroHT-lRON,  Cast-Iron,  or  Steel.— 
This  is  a  finishing-tool  for  wrought-iron  which  will  cut  smoothly, 
clean,  and  true,  beinir  far  preferable  to  the  square-nosed  tools 
sometimes  used  for  the  purpose  of  finishing  iron,  since  such  tools 
do  not  turn  wrought-iron  true,  but  follow  the  texture  of  the 
metal,  cutting  deepest  in  the  softer  parts,  especially  when  their 
edges  become  in  the  least  dull  from  use.     This  tool   should  be 


10 


MECHANICS. 


held  with  the  cutting  edge  as  close  in  to  the  tool-post  or  clamp  as 
it  can  conveniently  be,  with  a  quick  speed  and  fine  feed,  soapy 
water  being  applied  to  the  work.  It  may  be  also  used  for  taking 
light  roughing  cuts  on  small  work,  and  is,  for  such  purposes, 
an  excellent  tool,  especially  upon  work  so  slight  as  to  be  liable 
to  spring,  for  which  purpose  the  cutting  point  should  not  be 
much  rounded.  Ground  very  keen,  it  will  answer  admirably  for 
copper  work,  the  cutting  speed  being  very  great  ;  that  is  to"  say, 
at  least  fourfold  that  given  below,  which  is  for  finishing  cuts  on 
wrought  or  cast  iron. 


FINISHrNG-TOOL  FOR  WROUGHT-IRON,  CAST-IRON,  OR  STEEL. 


Size  of  work, 
inches  diameter. 

1  and  less 

1  to  3 

2  "    5 
5    "  12 

12    "  30 
20  and  over 


(-'lUtiiii;  jiijood, 
feet  per  minute. 

38 
30 
25 
23 
20 
18 


Peed. 

30 
25 
20 
20 
16 
14 


This  tool  should  always  be  hardi-ned  right  out  ;  and  if  used 
upon  cast-iron,  it  should  have  less  keenness  upon  tlie  toj)  face  ; 
that  is  to  say,  the  i)lane  of  the  top  face  should  be  ground  more 
nearly  to  the  same  plane  as  the  top  face  of  the  body  ()f  the  tool. 
For  use  upon  steel,  the  top  face  must  be  ground  more  nearly 
horizontal — a  rule  which,  we  tiuiy  hereoljservc,  applies  to  all  tools 
used  upon  wMuglit-iron.  It  sliould  be  placed  in  the  lathe  so 
tliat  its  cutting  edge  stands  above  the  horizontal  centre-line  of  the 
work. 

FnoNT-Toor-  kok  Bhass-Wouk.— This  is  a  complete  master- 
tool,  filling  every    necessary   <|iialillcati<)ii    for    all    plain   outside 
l)rass  work,  ami    dointr  the  duty  on  lliat   metal    wliicli    the  front 
tnol  nrid  right   and  left    hand  side-tools  do  on  wrought  iron.      As 
shown  in  the  engraving,  it  is  ground  to  suit  either  roughing  out 


MECHANICS. 


11 


or  finishing.  For  very  sliglit  work,  wbicli  is  liable  to  spring,  it 
may  be  ground  a  little  more  keen  on  the  side  faces,  the  top  face 
not' requiring,  under  any  possible  circumstances  or  conditions,  to 
be  o-round  keener  than  shown  above.  When  held  far  out  from 
the^'tool-post,  the  top  face  sliould  be  ground  away,  sloping  down 
toward  the  cutting  edge,  wliich  is  done  to  prevent  the  tool  from 
jarring  or  chattering.      It  should  be  hardened  right  out,  and  not 


FRONT-TOOL  FOR  BRASS-WORK. 


lowered  or  tempered  at  all,  and  used  for  roughing  out  at  the 
following  speed  and  feeds  : 


Size  of  work, 
in  inclies. 

1  and  less 

2  to    5 
5    to  13 

12    to  20 


Revolutions  of  Lathe. 

350 
250 
200 
150 


Peed. 
25 
25 
35 
30 


For  finishing-cuts,  the  cutting  speed  may  be  increased  by 
about  one  fifth,  which  rule  will  also  apply  to  its  use  upon  yellow 
brass  for  roughing  out  as  well  as  finishing  purposes. 


PARTING-TOOL. 


Parting  or  Grooving  Tool  for  Iron  or  Steel. — The  part 
ing  tool  is  applicable  either  to  cutting  grooves  or  for  parting,  or,  in 
other  words,  cutting  work  aj)art.  The  cutting  point,  or  end  of  the 
tool,  is  made  thicker  than  the  metal,  both  vertically  and  horizon- 
tally, behind  it,  so  that  the  latter  shall  clear  and  not  grind  against 
the  sides  of  the  groove.  This  tool,  especially  if  made  thin  to  suit 
some  especial  purpose,  is  excessively  liable  to  spring,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  pressure  of  the  cut  ;  and  if  it  commences  to  spring, 
it  is  apt  to  dig  into  the  cut,  and  then  break  from  the  excessive 


12 


MECHANICS. 


Strain.  It  is  to  prevent  this  digging  in  that  the  top  face  of  the 
cutting  part  of  the  tool  is  placed  so  much  below  the  top  face  of 
the  body  of  the  tool,  which  may,  however,  be  dispensed  with  when 
the  cutting  edge  is  held  close  in  to  the  tool-post,  and  the  groov- 
ing is  not  required  to  be  very  deep.  When,  however,  these  re- 
quirements do  exist,  the  form  illustrated  is  absolutely  indispen- 
sable to  rapid  and  reliable  duty,  whether  the  tool  be  used  in  a 
lathe  or  a  planiug-machine,  the  cutting  edge  of  the  tool  being 
kept  at  about  the  horizontal  centre  of  lathe-work,  by  packing- 
pieces  placed  beneath  the  body  of  the  tool.  If  the  width  of  the 
tool  is  not  less  than  ,^^  inch,  and  does  not  require  to  cut  a  groove 
deeper  than  f  inch,  it  should  be  hardened  right  out  ;  if,  however, 
these  conditions  are  reversed,  it  should  be  tempered  to  a  dark 
straw,  and  for  very  weak  tools  even  to  a  purple  color,  as  lower- 
ing the  temper  increases  the  strength  of  all  tools.  If  the  groove 
to  be  cut  is  sufficiently  broad  to  cause  the  tool  to  spring,  it  is 
best  to  use  a  narrower  one  and  cut  it  out  in  two  separate  cuts, 
moving  the  tool. 


PARTING-TOOL  FOU  BnA.*S. 


Parting-Tool  for  Br.\ss. — The  parting-tool  for  braes  is  gov- 
erned by  the  same  principle  as  that  for  iron,  save  that  its  top  face 
must  be  ground  level,  except  in  cases  where  the  cutting  edge 
stands  far  out  from  the  tool-post,  in  which  event  the  toj)   face 


KOl'OIIINO-TOOL   FOH    WUOIKillT-IUON. 


must  be  ground  away  at  an  angle  of  which  the  cutting  edge  is 
flie  lowest  i)iirt.  It  is  rarely,  liowever,  necessary  for  brass-work 
to  grind  tlie  cutting  edge  imich  below  tin-  level  of  tlie  to])  face  of 
the  bo<ly  of  the  tool,  as  is  sliowti   lor  use  on  wroiight-iroii.     'Die 


MECHANICS. 


13 


degree  of  hardness  of  the  tool  should  be  the  same   for  brass  as 
that  given  for  wrought-iron. 

ROUGHING-OUT  Front  Tool  FOR  Wrought-Iron.— Tlie  en- 
graving represents  the  best  possible  form  of  tool  for  roughing 
out  wrought-iron,  or  for  removing  a  large  mass  of  that  metal  in 
the  lathe  or  planing-uiachine.  When  used  on  large  work,  it 
should  be  tempered  to  a  light  straw-color,  which  will  leave  it 
strong  enough  to  stand  without  breaking  the  heavy  strain  due  to 
the  cut.  It  must  be  held  very  firmly,  and  with  the  cutting  edge 
as  close  to  the  tool-post  as  it  can  well  be. 

The  following  are  its  rates  of  cutting  speed  and  feed,  the  speed 
meaning  the  length  of  shaving  it  cuts  off,  and  the  feed  implying 
the  number  of  revolutions  of  the  lathe  necessary  to  feed  the  tool 
an  inch  along  its  cut  : 

Size  of  work.  Cutting  speed,  Yeed 

inches  diameter.  feet  per  minute. 

1  and  less  35  25 
Ito    2  25  20 

2  "    5  20  20 
5  "  12  18  15 

12  "  20  16  13 

20  and  over  15  12 

For  work  of  five  inches  diameter,  and  for  all  sizes  below  that,  the 
tool  should  be  hardened  right  out  ;  that  is,  made  as  hard  as  fire 
and  water  will  make  it,  and  not  tempered  at  all.  For  work  of  a 
larger  size,  it  should  be  tempered  to  a  light  straw-color.  This 
tool,  with  the  top  face  ground  less  keen,  that  is,  more  nearly 
horizontal,  is  an  excellent  one  for  steel,  and  the  harder  the  metal 
to  be  cut,  the  more  nearly  horizontal  the  to])  face  must  be.  It 
should  be  placed,  for  lathe- work,  so  that  the  cutting  edge  stands 
a  little  above  the  horizontal  centre-line  of  the  work. 


SIDE-TOOL    FOR    BRASS. 

Side-Tool  for  BRASS.^This  tool  fills  the  same  place  with  re- 
ference to  that  metal  that  the  side-tool  and  knife-tool  do  to  iron- 
work ;  and  it  has  no  superior  for  taking  out  corners,  for  cutting 
out  holes  or  recesses  which  do  not  pass  entirely  through  the 
metal.  In  conjunction  with  the  front-tool  for  brass,  already  il- 
lustrated, it  will  perform  almost  any  duty  upon  either  inside  or 
outside  brass-work,  except,  of  course,  cutting  out  narrow  grooves. 
Its  cross-section  is  somewhat  diamond-shaped,  and  it  is  made 
right  and  left  by  bending  in  opposite  directions.  It  is  a  far  better 
tool  than  those  bent  round  at  the  end  after  the  manner  of  a  Ijor- 


14 


MECHANICS. 


ing-tool ;  and  being  more  rigid,  it  is  easier  to  forge  and  grind,  and 
less  liable  to  jar  or  chatter.  It  is  equally  applicable  as  aroughing- 
out  or  a  finishing  tool.  It  should  be  hardened  right  out,  and 
used  at  the  speeds  and  feeds  given  for  the  front-tool  for  brass. 


PIDE-TOOI.   KOK   sglMllNL;    ENDS   OF  ■\VKOCGHT-IR0N  WORK. 

Side- Tool  for  Squ.\uing  Ends  op  Wrougiit-Iron  Work. — 
The  illustration  represents  a  side-tool  for  wrought-iron,  to  be 
employed  for  squaring  the  ends  of  work  held  between  the  lathe 
centres,  and  in  other  cases  wherein  there  is  not  sufficient  room  to 
admit  a  stouter  tool.  The  cutting  edge  is  shown  at  A,  and  .should 
be  made  more  keen  for  wrought  than  for  cast  iron.  In  forging 
it,  the  hammering  edgewise  should  be  performed  first,  nor  should 
any  lianmiering  be  done  to  it  edgewise  after  the  steel  lias  lost 
its  redness.  It  should,  for  light  duty,  and  for  all  finishing  pur- 
poses, be  hardened  right  out,  and,  for  heavy  duty,  be  tempered  to 
a  straw-color.  If,  liowever,  this  tool  is  employed,  as  it  some- 
times is,  for  very  heavy  duty  on  aslotting-machine,  taking  a  cut, 
say,  2^  inches  deep  and  \  inch  thick,  it  must  be  lowered  to  a 
brownish  purple  and  used  at  a  cutting  speed  of  about  10  feet  per 
minute,  and  be  ground  so  that  the  cutting  edge  first  strikes  the 
cut  near  the  body  of  the  tool,  and  not  at  the  point  end.  For  ordi- 
nary work,  it  is  best  used  with  a  comparatively  fine  feed  and 
quick  speed,  since  it  is  not  sufficiently  strong,  when  made  very 
hard,  to  stand  heavy  duty. 


SIDE-TOOI,    roil    IKON. 


SidkTooi,  koh  WRoufiHT  Ikon,  <'ast-Ii{()N,  ok  Stkrt.. — The 
engraving  represents  tlu;  most  superior  side-tnoi  for  eitlier  wrought 
or  cast  iron  or  steel,  the  only  difTeniUce  being  that  it  requires  to  be 
less  keen  for  tlie  hitter  than,  as  here  hIkuvu,  for  tlie  former.    It  la 


MECHANICS. 


15 


employed  to  cut  side-faces  and  to  take  out  round  or  square  cor- 
ners. For  small  work,  it  should  be  made  so  that  it  will  cut  at 
the  point,  and  not  on  both  edges  at  one  time,  when  used  in  a 
square  corner.  For  heavy  work,  it  may  be  made  more  round-nosed, 
and  allowed  to  cut  all  round  the  curve  ;  and  it  will,  in  either 
shape,  work  equally  well  as  a  roughing-out  or  as  a  finishing  tool, 
only  requiring  to  be  ground  more  keen  to  fit  it  for  finishing  pur- 
poses (which  should  be,  on  wrought-iron,  performed  with  soapy 
water  applied  to  the  work),  and  at  a  faster  speed  and  finer  feed. 
For  taking  out  a  round  corner  or  fillet  in  slight  work,  which  is 
liable  to  spring  from  the  pressure  due  to  the  cut,  the  point  must 
be  rounded  very  little,  the  curve  being  made  by  operating  both 
the  straight  and  cross  feeds  of  the  lathe.  This  tool  is  made  right 
or  left  handed  by  simply  bending  it  in  the  required  direction, 
that  illustrated  being  a  left-hand  tool.  It  should  be  made  as 
hard  as  fire  and  water  will  make  it,  and  used  at  the  following 
speeds  and  feeds  : 


iameter  of  woi 

■k, 

Speed,  in 

"P'pPfl 

in  inches. 

feet,  per  mtnute. 

J:  ecu. 

1  and  less 

30 

30 

1  to    2 

25 

25 

2  "     5 

22 

20 

5  "  12 

20 

20 

When,  however,  it  is  employed  for  roughing-out  purposes,  these 
speeds  may  be,  with  advantage,  slightly  diminished  and  the  feeds 
increased. 


SPRING-TOOL. 


Spring-Tool  for  Use  on  Wrought-Iron,  Cast-Iron,  Steel, 
OR  Br.\ss. — The  spring-tool  is  especially  adapted  to  finishing 
sweeps,  curves,  or  round  or  otlier  corners,  and  will  answer  for 
any  metal  whatever.  As  illustrated,  the  fiice  is  given  an  up 
ward  incline  to  make  it  sufficiently  keen  for  wrought-iron  or 
steel.  For  brass-work,  this  face  should  be  made  horizontally 
level,  or,  if  the  cutting  stands  with  its  cutting  edge  far  out  from 
the  tool-])ost,  it  may  be  inclined  downward  to  make  it  cut 
smoothly.  The  piece  of  wood  shown  driven  in  the  bend  is  to 
correct  any  tendency  of  the  tool  to  s]iring  away  from   the  hard 


16 


MECHANICS. 


parts  of  the  metal,  as  it  is  apt  to  do.  The  spring-tool  does  not 
turn  so  true  as  is  desirable,  still  the  smoothness  of  its  finish 
makes  it  the  most  desirable  tool  for  tlie  purposes  mentioned.  It 
should  have  its  face  filed  up  very  smoothly  before  bein<j 
hardened,  and  should  not  be  ground  on  that  face.  The  applica- 
tion of  the  oilstone  greatly  improves  its  value  for  finishinfr.  It 
should,  for  all  purpose,  be  tempered  to  a  brown  color  on  the  face, 
and  left  soft  around  the  bend. 


TOOLS. 


Borino-Bar  for  Lathe- Work. — In  boring  work  chucked 
and  revolved  in  the  lathe,  such,  for  instance,  as  axle-boxes  for  lo- 
comotives, the  boring-bar  here  shown  is  an  excellent  tool.  A 
represents  a  cutter-head,  which  slides  along,  at  a  close  working 
fit,  upon  the  bar,  D  D,  and  is  provided  with   the  cutters,  B  B  B, 


BORINH-BAR. 

whicli  are  fastened  into  slots  jjrovidcd  in  the  head,  A,  by  the  keys 
shown.  The  bar,  \)  D,  has  a  thread  cut  ui)on  part  of  its  length, 
ilie  remainder  being  plain,  to  fit  the  sliding  head.  One  end  is 
squared  to  receive  a  wrench,  which,  resting  against  the  bod  of  the 
lathe,  jiri'VentB  the  barfroni  revolving  upon  the  lathe  centre,  F  F, 
by  wliich  the  bur  is  held  in  the  lathe.  (J  (i  (»  are  plain  washers, 
jtrovided  to  make  iij)  tht;  distance  between  th(^  thread  and  ])lain 
part  of  th<^  bar,  in  cases  wIkmo  the  sliding  liead,  A,  requires  con- 
siderable lateral  movement,  there  being  more  or  fewer  washers 
employed  accorcliiig  to  the  distance  along  whicli  the  sliding  head 
is  re<|uired  to  move.  The  edtres  of  these  washers  an;  chamfered 
off  to  ])reveiit  them  from  burring  easily.  To  fe(>d  the  cutters,  the 
iMit,  II,  is  sirewed  up  with  a  wren<h. 

'{'he  cutter  head,  A,  is  provided  in  its  bore  with  two  feathers, 
wliicli  slide  in  grooves  i)rovided  in  tlm  bar,  D  1),  thus  prevent- 
ing  the  hea<l    from    revolving  upon    the  bar.      It    is    obvious  that 


MECHANICS. 


17 


tliis  bar  will,  in  consequence  of  its  rigidity,  take  out  a  mucli 
heavier  cut  than  would  be  possible  with  any  boring-tool,  and 
furthermore  that,  there  being  four  cutters,  they  can  be  fed  up 
four  times  as  fast  as  would  be  possible  with  a  single  tool  or  cut- 
ler. 

Boring-Tools,  Shapes  of.— The  pressure  on  the  cutting  edge 
of  a  tool  acts  in  two  directions,  the  one  vertical,  the  other  lateral. 
The  downward  pressure  remains  at  all  times  the  same  ;  the 
lateral  pressure  varies  according  to  the  direction  of  the  plane  of 
the  cutting  edge  of  the  tool  to  the  line  or  direction  in  which  the 
tool  travels :  the  general  direction  of  the  pressure  bein^  at  a 
right  angle  to  the  general  direction  of  the  plane  of  the  cutting 
edge.  For  example,  the  lateral  pressure,  and  hence  the  spring 
of  the  various  tools,  shown  in  the  cut,  will  be  in  each  case  in 
the  direction  denoted  by  the  dotted  lines.  D  is  a  section  of  a 
piece  of  metal  requiring  the  three  inside  collars  to  be  cut  out  ; 


LATEBAL  PRESSURE  OP    TOOLS. 

A,  B,  and  C  are  variously  shaped  boring-tools,  from  which  it  will 
be  seen  that  A  would  leave  the  cut  in  proportion  as  it  suffered 
from  spring,  which  would  increase  as  the  tool  edge  became  dull, 
and  that  the  cut  forms  a  wedge,  tending  to  force  the  tool  toward 
the  centre  of  the  work.  B  would  neither  spring  into  nor  away 
from  the  cut,  but  would  simply  require  more  power  to  feed  it  as 
the  edge  became  dulled  ;  while  C  would  have  a  tendency  to  run 
into  the  cut  in  proportion  as  it  springs  ;  and  as  the  tool  edge  be- 
came dull,  it  would  force  the  tool-point  deeper  and  deeper  into 
the  cut  until  something  gave  way.  Now,  in  addition  to  this  con- 
sideration of  spring,  we  have  the  relative  keenness  of  the  tools, 
it  being  obvious  at  a  glance  that  (independent  of  any  top  rake  or 
lip)  C  is  the  keenest  and  A  the  least  keen  tool  ;  and  since 
wrought-iron  requires  the  keenest,  cast-iron  a  medium,  and  brass 
the  least  keen  tool,  it  follows  that  we  may  accept,  as  a  rule,  C  for 
wrought  iron.  B  for  cast-iron,  and  A  for  brass-work.  In  Fig.  2,  B 
represents  a  section  of  the  work,  No.  1  represents  a  boring-tool 
with  top-rake,  for  wrought-iron,  and  No.  2  a  tool  without  top- 
rake,  for  brass-work,  which  niny  be  also  used  for  cast-iron  when 
the  tool  stands  a  long  way  out  from  the  tool  i)Ost  or  clamp,  under 
which  circumstances  it  is  liable  to  jar  or  chatter.     A  tool  for  use 


18 


MECHANICS. 


on  wrouglit-iron  should  have  the  same  amount  of  top-rake,  no 
matter  how  far  it  stands  out  from  the  tool-post  ;  whereas  one  for 
use  on  cast-iron  or  brass  requires  to  be  the  less  keen  the  further 
it  stands  out  from  the  tool-post.  To  take  a  very  smooth  cut  on 
brass-work,  the  top  face  of  the  tool,  shown  at  3  in  Fig.  3,  must 
be  ground  off,  as  denoted  by  the  dotted  line. 

We  have  now  to  consider  the  most  desirable   shape    for   the 
corner  of  the  cutting  edge.     A  positively  sharp  corner,  unless  for 


Kiii.  i. 

a  Bperial  j)urposo,  is  very  und<'siral)I<',  Ijccausc  the  (extreme  point 
soon  wears  iiway,  leaving  the  ctitting  (jiiaiilication  (rf  the  tool 
almost  di'Hlroyt'd,  and  l)ccaii.st!  it  Icuvch  the  work  rough,  and  can 
only  i)e  employed  with  a  very  fine  feed.  It  may  l)e  aciej)ted  as  a 
general  ruh^  tluit,  for  roughing  cuts,  till-  ciiini-r  should  be  suili- 
ci.Mitly  rounded  to  give  strength  to  thf  lool-jKjint  ;  while,  in 
fini.-hiMir  <iitH,  the  point  may  be  nnidr  as  round  us  jtossibh!  with- 
out ciinsin^Mhr  tool  to  jar  or  chati.T.      Now,  sinn-    the    tendency 


MECHANICS. 


19 


of  the  tool  to  jar  or  chatter  depends  upon  four  points,  namely, 
the  distance  it  stands  out  from  the  tool-post,  the  amount  of  top- 
rake,  the  acuteness  or  keenness  of  the  general  outline  of  the  tool, 
and  the  shape  of  the  cutting  corner,  it  will  he  readily  seen  tliat 


FIG.   3. — VARIOUS   FORMS   OF  BORING-TOOLS. 

judgment  is  required  to  determine  the  most  desirable  form  for  any 
particular  conditions,  and  that  it  is  only  by  understanding  the 
principles  governing  the  conditions  that  a  tool  to  suit  them  may 
be  at  once  formed.  In  Fig.  3  will  be  fouud  the  various  forms  of 
boring-tools  for  ordinary  use.  No.  1  is  for  use  when  the  condi- 
tions admit  of  a  heavy  cut  on  wrouglit-iron.  No.  2  is  for  use  on 
wrought-iron  when  the  tool  stands  so  far  from  the  tool-post  as  to 
be  necessarily  subject  to  spring.  No.  3  is  to  cut  out  a  square 
corner  at  the  bottom  of  a  hole  in  wrought-iron.  No.  4  is  for 
taking  out  a  heavy  cut  in  cast-iron.  No.  5  is  for  taking  out  a 
finishing  cut  in  cast-iron  when  the  tool  is  proportionally  stout, 
and  hence  not  liable  to  spring  or  chatter  ;  the  point  being  flat, 
the  cutting  being  performed  by  the  front  corner,  and  the  back 
part  being  adjusted  to  merely  scrape.  No.  6  is  for  use  on  cast- 
iron  under  conditions  in  which  the  tool  is  liable  to  jar  or  spring. 

Chilled  Cast-Iron  Tools,  To  cast,  for  cutting  chilled  iron. — 
Make  a  tool  of  the  required  shape  out  of  wrought  iron,  then  case 
the  chilled  part,  using  charcoal-iron  No.  5. 

Chipping.— The  chisel  requires  special  notice  since  it  is  fre- 
quently made  of  the  most  ill-advised  shape  (for  either  cutting 
smoothly  or  standing  the  effects  of  the  blow),  that  is,  hollow,  as 
in  Fig.  1,  in  which  case  there  are  two  sections  f)f  metal,  repre- 
sented by  the  dotted  lines,  a  a.  which  are  very  liable  to  break, 
from  their  weakness  and  from  the  strain  outward  placed  upon 
them  by  the  cut,  which,  acting  as  a  wedge,  endeavors  at  each 
blow   to   drive  thcni  outward   instead  of   inward,  as   would  be 


20 


MECHAJaCS. 


the  case  in  a  properly  shaped  chisel,  as  shown  iu  Fig.  3,  a  being 
the  cutting  edge. 

When  using,  hold  it  firmlv  against  the  cut,  and  it  will  do  its 
work  smoother  and  quicker. 

The  cape,  or,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  cross-cut  chisel,  is  em- 
ploN-ed  to  cut  furrows  across  the  work  to  be  chipped,  which  fur- 
rows, being  cut  at  a  distance  from  each  other  less  in  width  than 
the  breadth  of  the  flat  chisel,  relieve  the  flat  chisel  and  prevent  its 
corners  from  "  digging  in"  and  breaking.  If  a  large  body  of 
metal  requires  to  be  chipped  ofE  cast-iron  or  brass,  the  use  of  the 


•a. 


a 


riti.  1. 


FIG.  2. 


COLD    CHISELS. 


cape-chisel  becomes  especially  advantageous,  for  the  metal,  being 
weakened  by  the  furrows, will  break  away  in  pieces  from  the  force 
of  the  blow,  without  requiring  to  be  positively  cut  by  the  chisel  ; 
but  care  must  be  tukeu  to  leave  sufficient  metal  to  take  a  clean 
finishing  cut  ;  for  when  the  metal  is  broken  away,  by  the  force  of 
the  blow,  it  is  ai)t  to  break  out  below  the  level  of  the  cut.  It  is 
also  necessary  to  nick  deeply  with  a  chisel  the  outside  edges  of 
the  work  at  the  line  representing  the  depth  of  the  metal  to  be 
chipped  off,  so  that  the  metal  shall  not  break  away  at  the  edges 
deeper  than  the  cut  is  intended  to  be. 

Chisels,  Cold,  To  grind. — Grind  a  cold-chisel  so  that  its  cut- 
ting edge  is  rounding  and  not  hollow,  as  it  is  often  made.  A 
rounded  chisel  is  stronger  and  cuts  smoother.  A  hollow  chisel 
has  no  useful  place  as  a  chipping-tool. 

Chisels,  Cot.d,  To  harden. — Heat  the  chisel  to  a  distance  about 
equal  to  its  width,  immerse  it  about  half  that  distance  in  the  wa- 
ter, hold  it  still  about  four  seconds,  suddenly  dip  it  a  little 
deeper,  and  then  withdraw.  Urightt  n  one  flat  surface  with  a 
I)iece  of  grindstone  or  an  cniery-block  ;  then  l)rnsh  the  hand  or  a 
piece  of  waste  over  the  brightened  surface  to  remove  Ww  false 
color,  and  finally  cool  out  in  the  water,  when  the  clear  blue  color 
api)ears. 

CiilsPM.H,  C<ti,i),  To  hold.  —  IIolil  u  cold-chisel  firmly  to  its  cut, 
without  removing  it  at  every  blow.  This  will  incr<-iise  its  effec- 
tiveness, and  decrease  its  liability  to  break  from  a  foul  blow. 

CliisKi.H,  Cold,  To  remove  burrs  from  the  heads  of. — When 
tlie  head  of  a  cold-cliisrl  is  burn  d  over  from  use,  rest  the  head 
ujnm  a  l>lock  of  iron,  and  strike  tin-  burrs  from  the  under  side, 
and  tiny  will  l)r<'!ik  n-adily  and  easily  olT. 


MECHA^^cs. 


21 


Chisels,  Cold,  Use  of. — These  sliould  be  kept  thin  at  the  cut- 
ting end,  which  saves  time  and  entails  less  labor  in  using. 

Cone-Plate  for  boring  in  the  lathe. — For  chucking  shafts  and 
other  similar  work  in  tbe  lathe  (to  bore  holes  in  the  ends  of  the 
shafts,  etc.),  the  cone-plate  shown  in  the  engraving  is  the  best 
appliance  known  to  machinists.  A  is  a  standard,  fitting  in  the 
shears  of  the  lathe,  at  E,  and  holding  the  circular  plate,  C,  by 
means  of  the  bolt,  B,  which  should  be  made  to  just  clamp  the 
plate,  C,  tightly  when  the  nut  is  screwed  tight.  The  plate  con- 
tains a  series  of  conical  holes,  1,  2,  3,  etc.  (shown  in  section  at  D). 
The  object  of  coning  the  pin,  B,  where  it  carries  the  plate,  C,  is 
that  the  latter  shall  be  made  to  a  good  working  fit  and  have  no 
play.  The  operation  is  to  place  the  shaft  in  the  lathe,  one  end 
being  provided  with  a  driver,  dog,  or  carrier,  and  placed  on  the 
running  or  line  centre  of  the  lathe  ;   and  the  other   end,  to   be 


CONE-PLATE  FOR  BORING  Df  THE  LATHE. 

operated  upon,  being  placed  in  such  one  of  the  conical  holes  of 
the  plate,  C,  as  is  of  suitable  size,  the  distance  of  the  standard, 
A,  from  the  lathe-centre  is  to  be  adjusted  so  that  the  work  will 
revolve  in  the  coned  hole  with  about  as  much  friction  as  it  would 
have  were  it  placed  between  both  the  lathe-centres.  Thus  the 
conical  hole  will  take  the  place  of  the  dead-centre  of  the  lathe, 
leaving  the  end  of  the  shaft  free  to  be  operated  on.  F  F  are 
holes  to  bolt  the  standard,  A,  to  the  lathe  shears  or  bed  ;  and  G 
G,  etc.,  are  taper-holes  to  receive  the  pin,  G,  shown  in  the  sec- 
tional view.  The  object  of  these  holes  and  pin  is  to  adjust  the 
conical  holes  so  that  they  will  stand  dead  true  with  the  lathe- 
centres  ;  for  if  they  stood  otherwise,  the  holes  would  not  be 
bored  straight  in  the  work.  In  the  engraving,  hole  No.  7  is 
shown  in  position  to  operate,  the  pin,  G,  locking  the  plate,  C,  in 
that  position.  In  setting  the  work,  the  nut  on  the  pin,  B,  should 
be  eased  back  just  sufficiently  to  allow  the  plate.  C,  to  revolve 
by  hand  ;  the  work  should  then  be  put  into  position,  and  the  pin, 
G,  put  into  place  ;  the  standard.  A,  should  then  be  adjusted   to 


Q2 


MECHANICS. 


its  distaiKM' from  till- live  liillif-centre,  and  bolted  to  tlie  lathe- 
bed  ;  and  linally,  the  nut  on  the  pin,  B,  should  be  screwed  up 
tight,  when  the  work  will  l)e  held  true,  and  tlie  cone-plate  pre- 
vented from  f^pringing.  Care  must  be  taken  to  t^upply  the  coni- 
cal holes,  in  which  the  work  revolves,  with  a  liberal  quantity  of 
oil,  otherwise  they  will  be  apt  to  abrade. 

Cutters  and  Reamers,  To  prevent,  cracking  when  being 
hardened. — Drill  a  small  hole  from  tlie  side  to  meet  the  large  one 
at  its  enclosed  termination. 

Cutters  for  Boiler-Platr  and  similar  Work.— Cutters  are 
steel  bits,  usually  held  in  either  a  stock  or  bar,  being  fitted  and 
keyed  to  the  same  ;  by  this  means,  cutters  of  various  shapes  and 
sizes  may  be  made  to  fit  one  stock  or  bar,  thus  obviating  the  ne- 
cessity of  having  a  multiplicity  of  these  tools.  Of  cutter-stocks, 
whicli  are  usually  employed  to  cut  out  holes  of  comparatively 
large  diameter,  as  in  the  case  of  tube-plates  for  boilers,  there  are 
two  kinds,  the  simplest  and  easiest  to  lie  made  being  tliat  shown 
below. 


Cl'TTBRt:. 


A  is  the  stock,  through  wiiich  runs  a  slot  or  keyway  into  which 
th(!  cutter,  ii,  fits,  being  locked  by  tlie  key,  (".  D  is  a  pin  to 
steady  tlu;  tool  while  it  is  in  operation.  Holes  of  the  size  of  the 
pin,  f),  are  first  drilled  in  the  work,  into  which  the  ])in  fits.  To 
obviate  the  nectissity  of  drilling  these  holes,  somc^  modern  drill- 
stocks  Imve,  in  place  of  the  pin,  D,  a  conical-ended  pin  which  acts 
as  a  centre,  and  which  fits  into  a  centre  punch  mark  made  in  the 
eenfre  of  the  hole  to  be  cut  in  the  woi'k  Most  of  these  devices 
are  patenteil,  and  the  in'mciple  u|)oii  which  they  act  will  be  un- 
derstoo'i  from  the  second   enf-raving,  A  being  the  stock  to  whicli 


MECHANICS. 


23 


the  cutters,  B  B,  are  bolted  with  one  or  more  screws.     ('  is  a  spiral 
spring  working  in  a  hole  in  the  stock  to  receive  it.     Into  the  out- 
er end  of  this  hole  fits,  at  a  working  fit,  the  centre,  D,  wliich 
prevented  from  being  forced  out  (from  the  pressure  of  the  spring 


IS 


CUTTERS. 


C)  by  the  pin  working  in  the  recess,  as  shown.  E  is  the  plate  to 
be  cut  out,  from  which  it  will  be  observed  that  the  centre,  D,  is 
forced  into  the  centre-punch  mark  in  the  plate  by  the  spring,  C, 
and  thus  serves  as  a  guide  to  steady  the  cutters  and  cause  them  to 
revolve  in  a  true  circle,  so  that  the  necessity  of  first  drilling  a 
hole,  as  required  in  the  employment  of  the  form  of  stock  shown 
in  the  first  figure,  is  obviated. 

Cutting   Square  Threads,  Tools  for.— For  cutting  square 
threads,  the  tool  here  represented  is  used.     The  point  at  C  is 

JicrJ4>. 


'T 


TOOL    Foil   CUTTING    SQUARE    THREADS. 

made  thicker  than  the  width  at  D,  so  as  to  give  the  sides  clear- 
ance from  the  sides  of  the  thread.  At  B  it  is  made  thinner,  to 
give  the  tool  clearance,  and  deeper  to  compensate  in  some  mea- 
sure for  the  lack  of  substance  in  the  thickness.     The  top  face 


24 


MECHANICS. 


may,  for  wrought-iron  or  steel,  be  ground  hollow,  C  being  the 
liifihest  point,  to  make  it  cut  cleaner  ;  while,  when  held  far  out 
from  the  tool-post  for  use  on  brass-work,  the  face,  C  D,  may  be 
ground  at  an  incline,  of  which  C  is  the  lowest  point,  which  will 
prevent  the  tool  from  springing  into  the  work. 

If  the  pitch  of  the  screw  to  be  cut  is  very  coarse,  a  tool  nearly 
one  half  of  the  width  of  the  space  between  one  thread  and  the 
next  should  be  employed,  so  as  to  avoid  the  spring  which  a  tool 
of  the  full  width  would  undergo.  After  taking  several  cuts, 
the  tool  must  be  moved  laterally  to  the  amount  of  its  width,  and 
cuts  taken  ofE  as  before  until  the  tool  has  cut  somewhat  deeper 
than  it  did  before  being  moved,  when  it  must  be  placed  back 
again  into  its  first  position,  and  the  process  repeated  until  the  re- 
quired depth  of  thread  is  attained. 


Sr-KEW  ni'RINr.  ctjttino 


The  abov(>  figure  represents  a  thread  or  screw  during  the  above- 
described  ))n)cess  of  cutting,  a  a  a\s  the  groove  or  space  taken 
out  by  tilt!  cuts  liefore  the  tool  was  moved  ;  B  B  represents  tlie 
first  cut  taken  after  it  was  moved  ;  c  is  the  point  to  which  the 
cut,  B,  is  supposed  (for  the  purpose  of  this  illustration)  to  have 
traveled. 

The  tool  used  liaviiig  been  a  little  less  than  one  half  the  proper 
width  of  th(!  space  <>f  the  tliread,  it  becomes  evident  that  the  thread 
will  be  l(!ft  with  ratluT  more  than  its  jiroprr  thickne.s.x,  wliicli  is 
done  to  allow  finishing-cuts  to  be  taken  uj)on  its  sidi'S.  for  which 
purpose  the  knife-tool  already  described  is  brought  into  requisi- 
tion, care  being  taken  that  it  is  placed  true,  so  as  to  cut  i)()th 
sides  f)f  the  tliread  of  an  cfiual  angle  to  the  centre-line  ot  the 
Kcr(!w. 

AfljuKtdhle  dies,  tliat  is,  those  which  take  nion^  than  one  cut  to 
make  a  full  tliread,  should  never  be  used  in  cases  where  a  solid 
die  will  answer  the  jturpose,  because  adjustable  dies  take  every 
cut  at  a  (lifTerent  angle  to  the  ceiitre-liiie  of  the  bolt,  as  ex]ilaiiied 
by  the  following  engravings. 

Tlie  first  re]>resents  an  ordinary  screw.  It  is  vvident  that  the 
))itcli  from  (I  to  B  is  the  same  as  from  ('  to  D,  tlu;  one  being  the 
to]),  the  otlier  the  liottom,  of  the  thread.  It  is  also  evident  that  a 
piece  of  cord  wound  once  around  tlie  top  of  the  thread  will  be 
longer  than   one  wound   once  around  tlie  bottom   of  the  thread, 


MECHANICS. 


25 


and  yet,  in  passing  once  around  tlie  thread,  the  latter  advanced 
as  much  forward  as  the  former,  that  is,  to  the  amount  of  the 
pitch  of  the  thread.  To  illustrate  this  fact,  let  a  b,  in  the  follow- 
ing diagram,  represent  the  centre-line  of  the  bolt  lengthwise,  and 


B   a 


ORDINARY    SCREW. 

c  d  a,  line  at  right  angles  to  it  ;  then  let  from  the  point  e  to  the 
point  /represent  the  circumference  of  the  top  of  the  thread,  and 
from  e  to  g  the  circumference  of  the  bottom  of  the  thread,  the 
lines  7i  7i  representing  their  respective  pitches  ;  and  we  have  the 
line  k  as  representing  the  angle  of  the  top  of  the  thread  to  the 
centre-line,  a  b,  of  the  bolt,  and  the  line  I  as  representing  the 
angle  of  the  bottom  of  the  thread  to  the  centre-line,  a  b,  of  the 
bolt,  from  which  it  becomes  apparent  that  the  top  and  the  bot- 
tom of  the  thread  are  at  different  angles  to  the  centre-line  of  the 
bolt.  The  tops  of  the  teeth  of  adjustable  dies  are  themselves  at 
the  greatest  angle,  while  they  commence  to  cut  the  thread  on  the 
bolt  at  its  largest  diameter,  where  it  possesses  the  least  angle,  so 


Ch 


that  the  dies  cut  a  wrong  angle  at  first,  and  gradually  approach 
the  correct  angle  as  they  cut  the  depth  of  the  thread.  From  what 
has  been  already  said,  it  will  be  perceived  that  the  angle  of 
thread  cut  by  the  first  cuts  taken  by  adjustable  dies,  is  neither 
that  of  the  teeth  of  the  dies  nor  that  required  by  the  bolt,  so  that 
the  dies  can  not  cut  clean  because  the  teeth  do  not  fit  the  grooves 
they  cut,  and  drag  in  consequence. 


26  MECHANICS. 

Dies  for  use  in  hand-stocks  are  cut  from  hubs  of  a  larger  dia- 
meter than  the  size  of  bolt  the  dies  are  intended  to  cut :  this  being 
done  to  cause  the  dies  to  cut  at  the  cutting  edges  of  the  teeth 
which  are  at  or  near  the  centre  of  each  die,  so  that  the  threads 
on  each  side  of  each  die  act  as  guides  to  steady  the  dies  and  pre- 
vent them  from  wabbling,  as  they  otherwise  would  do  ;  the  result 
of  this  is  that  the  angle  of  the  thread  in  the  dies  is  not  the  cor- 
rect angle  for  the  thread  of  the  bolt,  even  when  the  dies  are  the 
closest  together,  and  hence  taking  the  finishing-cuts  on  the  thread, 
although  the  dies  are  nearer  the  correct  angle  when  in  that  posi- 
tion than  in  any  other.  A  very  little  practice  at  cutting  threads 
with  stocks  and  dies  will  demonstrate  that  the  tops  of  the 
threads  on  a  bolt  cut  by  them  are  larger  than  was  the  diameter 
of  the  bolt  before  the  thread  was  commenced  to  be  cut,  which 
arises  from  the  pressure  placed  on  the  sides  of  the  thread  of  the 
bolt  by  the  sides  of  tlie  thread  on  the  dies,  in  consequence  of  the 
difference  in  their  angles  ;  which  pressure  compresses  the  sides 
of  the  bolt-thread  (the  metal  being  softer  than  that  of  the  dies), 
and  causes  a  corresponding  increase  in  its  diameter.  It  is  in  con- 
sequence of  the  variation  of  angle  in  adjustable  dies  that  a  square 
thread  can  not  be  cut  by  them,  and  that  they  do  not  cut  a  good 
V-thread. 

In  the  case  of  a  solid  die,  the  teeth  or  threads  are  cut  by  a  hub 
the  correct  size,  and  they  therefore  stand  at  the  proper  angle  ; 
furthermore,  each  diameter  in  the  depth  of  the  teeth  of  the  die 
cuts  the  corresponding  diameter  on  the  bolt,  so  that  there  is  no 
strain  upon  the  sides  of  the  thread  save  that  due  to  the  force  ne- 
cessary to  cut  the  metal  of  the  bolt-thread. 

Cutting  versus  Sckaping  Tools. — A  tool  will  either  cut  or 
scrape,  according  to  the  position  in  whidi  it  is  held,  as.  for  in- 
stance, below  the  line  A  in  the  illustration.     Line  A  is  in  each 


CUTTING   AND  SCRAPINO. 


casi!  onf  drawn  from  tlie  centre  of  tlu!  work  to  th(!  jjoint  of  con- 
tact betwe(!ii  tin;  tool  edge  and  tlie  work,  ('  being  tlie  work,  and 


MECHANICS. 


27 


B  the  tool.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  angle  of  the  top  face  of 
the  tool  varies  in  each  case  with  the  line  A.  In  position  1,  the 
tool  is  a  cutting  one  ;  in  2,  it  is  a  scraper  ;  in  3,  it  is  a  tool  which 
is  a  cutter  and  scraper  combined,  since  it  will  actually  perform 
both  functions  at  one  and  the  same  time  ;  and  in  4,  It  is  a  good 
cutting  tool,  the  shapes  and  angles  of  the  tools  being  the  same  in 
each  case. 

Dies,  Fitting,  to  quadrants  when  either  the  dies  or  quadrants, 
or  both,  are  to  be  hardened. — -Make  them  a  shade  too  small,  to  al- 
low for  their  swelling  during  the  process  of  hardening. 

Dies,  To  ease  hardened,  that  fit  too  tightly. — Supply  them 
with  very  fine  emery  and  oil,  and  work  them  backward  and  for- 
ward in  their  place  along  the  travel. 

Dies,  To  renew  worn-out. — Slightly  close  the  holes  by  swaging, 
fill  the  clearance-holes  with  Babbitt-metal,  and  recut  them  with 
the  hub. 


COUNTERSINK-PnSf  DRILLS. 


Drills,  Countersink-Pin. — Of  these  tools  there  are  various 
forms.  The  following  figure  represents  a  taper  countersink  such 
as  is  employed  for  holes  to  receive  flush  rivets  or  countersunk 
head-bolts,  this  form  of  tool  being  mainly  employed  for  holes  above 
1^  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  It  should  be  made,  tempered,  and  used 
as  directed  for  pin-drills.  In  tempering  these  tools,  or  any  others 
having  a  pin  or  projection  to  serve  as  a  guide  in  a  hole,  the  tool 
should  be  hardened  right  out  from  the  end  of  the  pin  to  about  f  of 
an  inch  above  the  cutting  edges.  Then  lower  the  temper  of  the 
metal  (most  at  and  near  the  cutting-edges),  leaving  the  pin  of  a 
light  straw-color,  which  may  be  accomplished  by  pouring  a  little 


28 


MECHANICS. 


oil  upou  it  during  the  lowering  or  tempering  process.  The  object 
of  this  is  to  preserve  it  as  much  as  possible  from  the  wear  due  to 
its  friction  against  tlie  sides  of  the  hole.  For  use  on  wrought-irou 
and  steel,  this  countersink  (as  also  the  piu-drill)  may  have  the 
front  face  hollowed  out,  after  the  fashion  of  the  lip-drill,  and  as 
shown  by  the  dotted  line. 

Drills,  Slot,  for  key  ways. — For  drilling  out  oblong  holes,  such 
as  key  ways,  or  for  cutting  out  recesses  such  as  are  required  to  re- 
ceive short  feathers  in  shafts,  the  drill  known  as  a  slotting-drill, 
here  shown,  is  brought  into  requisiiion.     No.  1  is  the  form  in 


EDGE  VIEW 


tND  VIEW 


^J\/Pl.     £ 


END  VIEW 


A  A 

EDGE  VIEW  SIDE  VIEW 

rifl.  1.— HI.0T-DRI1.L8. 

which  this  tool  was  employed  in  tlie  early  days  of  its  introduc- 
tion ;  it  is  thtr  Htrongi^r  form  of  the  two,  and  will  tak(^  the  heaviest 
cut.  'J'iie  ol)j('ctioti  to  it,  liowevor,  is  that,  in  cutting  out  deep 
slots,  it  is  !ipt  to  drill  (lut  of  true,  the  hoh'  gradually  running  to 
one  side.  Tlur  iiictlioil  (»f  u.sing  tlicse  drills  is  to  move  tlu^  work 
Inick  and  forth,  in  a  chuck  i)rovided  for  the  ])urpose,  the  drill  re- 
maining .stationary.  If  these  tools  were  used  as  common  drills, 
they  would  cut  lioles  of  the  form  shown  in  Fig.  2. 

FiLKs,  TIk?  use  of.  —  In  draw-liliug,  take   short,  quick  strokes, 
which  will  prevent  the  file  from   iiinning  and   scratching.     Long 


MECHANICS. 


29 


strokes,  no  matter  how  long  the  work  may  be,  are  useless  save  to 
make  scratches.  Remember  that  it  is  less  tlie  number  of  strokes 
you  give  the  tile  than  the  weight  you  place  upon  it  that  is  effec- 
tive ;  tlierefore,  when  using  a  rough  tile,  stand  suflaciently  away 
from  the  vise  to  bring  the  weight  of  the  body  upon  the  forward 
stroke.  New  files  should  be  used  at  first  upon  broad  surfaces,  since 
narrow  edges  are  apt  to  break  the  teeth  if  they  have  the  fibrous 
edges  unw'orn.     For  brass- work,  use  the  file  on  a  broad  surface 


FIG.   2.— SLOT-DRILLS. 

until  ts  teeth  are  dulled,  then  make  two  or  three  strokes  of  the 
file  under  a  heavy  pressure  upon  the  edge  of  a  piece  of  sheet-iron, 
which  will  break  off  the  dulled  edges  of  the  teeth,  and  leave  a 
new  fibrous  edge  for  the  brass-work.  Use  bastard-cut  files  to 
take  off  a  quantity  of  metal  of  ordinary  hardness  ;  second-cut,  in 
fitting,  and  also  to  file  unusually  hard  metal  ;  smoothing,  to  fin- 
ish in  final  adjustment  or  preparatory  to  applying  emery-cloth  ; 
dead  smooth,  to  finish  very  fine  work  ;  float-file  on  lathe-work. 

FiliES,  To  prevent  scratching  by. — To  prevent  files  from  pin- 
ning, and  hence  from  scratching,  properly  clean  them,  and  then 
chalk  them  well. 

Files,  To  resharpen. — (1)  Carefully  clean  them  with  hot  water 
and  soda,  then  place  them  in  connection  with  the  positive  pole  of 
a  battery  in  a  bath  composed  of  4  parts  of  sulphuric  acid  and  100 
parts  water.  The  negative  pole  is  to  be  formed  of  a  copper  spi- 
ral, surrounding  the  files  but  not  touching  them  ;  the  coil  termi- 
nates in  a  wire  reaching  above  the  surface.  Leave  the  files  in 
the  bath  ten  minutes,  then  carefully  wash  them  off,  dry,  and  oil. 
(2)  Carefully  clean  the  files  in  hot  water  and  soda,  and  dip  for  40 
minutes  in  nitric  acid  of  41^  B. 

Files,  To  select. — To  choose  a  flat  file,  turn  it  edge  upward, 
and  look  along  it,  selecting  those  that  have  an  even  sweep  from 
end  to  end,  and  having  no  flat  places  or  hollows.  To  choose  a 
half-round  file,  turn  the  edge  upward,  look  along  it,  and  select 
that  which  has  an  even  sweep,  and  no  flat  or  hollow  places  on  the 
half-round  side,  even  though  it  be  hollow  in  the  length  of  the 
flat  side. 

Gravers,  Grinding. — Gravers  should  be  ground  on  the  end 
only,  and  not  on  the  sides  of  the  square,  except  when  applied  to 
brass-work. 

Half-Round  Bits. — For  drilling  or  boring  liolesvery  true  and 
parallel  in  the  lathe,  the  half-round  bit  shown  in  the  engraving 


30 


MECHANICS. 


is  unsurpassed.  The  cutting  edge.  A,  is  made  by  backing  off  the 
end,  as  denoted  by  the  space  between  the  lower  end  of  the  tool 
and  the  dotted  line,  B,  and  performing  its  duty  along  the  radius, 
as  denoted  by  the  dotted  line  in  the  end  and  top  views.  It  is  only 
necessary  to  start  the  half-round  bit  true,  to  insure  its  boring  a 
hole  of  any  depth  true,  })arallel,  and  very  smooth.  To  start  it, 
the  face  of  the  work  should,  if  circumstances  permit,  be  made 
true  ;  this  is  not,  however,  positively  necessary.  A  recess,  true 
and  of  the  same  diameter  as  the  bit,  should  be  turned  in  the 
work,  the  bit  then  being  placed  in  position,  and  the  dead-centre 
employed  to  feed  it  to  its  duty,  which  (if  the  end  of  the  bit  is 
square,  if  a  flat  place  be  filed  upon  it,  or  any  other  method  of 
holding  it  sufficiently  tight  be  employed)  may  be  made  as  heavy 
as  the  belt  will  drive.  So  simple,  positive,  and  effective  is  the 
operation  of  this  bit  that  (beyond  starting  it  true  and  using  it  at 
a  moderate  cutting  speed,  with  oil  for  wrought-iron  and  steel)  no 
further  instructions  need  be  given  for  its  use. 


KKi.  1.— IIALF-ROUNI)  BITS. 

In  Fig.  2  is  shown  .\,  a  Imriiig  I)ar  ;  1?  M  is  the  sliding  lii-ad  ; 
(.' C  is  tlie  bore  of  the  cylinder,  and  1,  2,  and  ',i  are  tools  in  the 
j)ositionH  pliown.  D  I)  1)  are  projections  in  the  bore  of  the  cylin- 
der, causing  an  exce.saive  amount  of  duty  to  be  ])laced  ujion  the 
cutters,  as  soIM(•tiInc^s  occurs  wlien  a  cut  of  medium  depili  lias 
been  h-tiirti'd.  Siidi  a  cut  incniases  on  <mt'.  side  of  the  l)ore  of  tlie 
work  until,  liecoming  excessive,  it  causes  the  bar  to  tremhlt;  and 


MECHANICS. 


31 


the  cutters  to  chatter.  In  sucli  a  case,  tool  and  position  No.  1 
would  not  be  relieved  of  any  duty,  though  it  spring  to  a  consider- 
able degree  ;  because  the  bar  would  spring  in  the  direction  de- 
noted by  the  dotted  line  and  arrow  E,  while  the  spring  of  the 
tool  itself  would  be  in  the  direction  of  the  arrow,  F.  The  ten- 
dency of  the  spring  of  the  bar  is  to  force  the  tool  deeper  into 
the  cut  instead  of  relieving  it ;  while  the  tendency  of  the  spring 
of  the  tool  will  scarcely  afEect  the  depth  of  the  cut.  Tool  and 
position  No.  3  would  cause  the  bar  to  spring  in  the  direction  of 
the  dotted  line  and  arrow  G,  and  the  tool  itself  to  spring  in  the 
direction  of  H,  the  spring  of  the  bar  being  in  a  direction  to  in- 
crease, and  that  of  the  tool  to  diminish,  the  cut.  Tool  and  posi- 
tion No.  3  would,  however,  place  the  spring  of  the  bar  in  a  direc- 


FIG.    2— SPRING  OF  BORING  TOOLS. 

tion  which  would  scarcely  affect  the  depth  of  the  cut,  while  the 
spring  of  the  tool  itself  would  be  in  a  direction  to  give  decided 
relief  by  springing  away  from  its  excessive  duty.  It  must  be 
borne  in  mind  that  even  a  stout  bar  of  medium  length  will  spring 
considerably  from  an  ordinary  roughing-out  cut,  though  the  lat- 
ter be  of  an  equal  depth  all  round  the  bore,  and  from  end  to  end 
of  the  work.  Position  No.  3,  in  Fig.  2,  then,  is  decidedly  prefer- 
able for  the  roughing-out  cuts.  In  the  finishing  cuts,  which 
should  be  very  light  ones,  neither  the  bar  nor  the  tool  is  so 
much  affected  by  springing  ;  but  even  here  position  No.  3  main- 
tains its  superiority,  because,  the  tool  being  pulled,  it  operates 
somewhat  as  a  scraper  (though  it  may  be  as  keen  in  shape  as  the 
other  tools),  and  hence  it  cuts  more  smoothly.  It  possesses,  it  is 
true,  the  defect  that  the  distance  from  the  cutting  point  stands 
further  out  from  the  holding-clamp,  and  the  tool  is  hence  more 
apt  to  sprinof ;  and  in  cases  where  the  diameter  of  the  sliding 
head  is  muchless  than  that  of  the  hole  to  be  bored,  this  defect 
may  possess  importance,  and  then  position  No.  2  may  be  prefer- 


32  MECHANICS. 

able  ;  but  it  is  an  error  to  employ  a  bar  of  small  diameter  com- 
pared to  that  of  the  work. 

To  obtain  the  very  best  and  most  rapid  result,  there  should  be 
but  little  space  between  tiie  sliding  head  and  tbe  bore  of  the 
work  ;  the  bar  itself  should  be  as  stout  as  is  practicable,  leaving 
the  sliding  head  of  sufficient  strength  ;  and  if  the  bar  revolves  in 
journals,  these  should  be  of  large  diameter  and  with  ample  facili- 
ties for  taking  up  both  the  diametrical  and  end  play  of  the  boxes, 
since  the  one  steadies  the  bar  while  it  is  performing  boring  duty, 
and  the  other  while  it  is  facing  off  end  faces,  as  for  cylinder-cover 
joints. 

Hammers,  Chipping. — These  should  weigh  about  If  lbs.,  and 
have  handles  15  inches  long. 

Metal  having  a  very  hard  Skin,  Tools  used  for. — When 
the  skin  of  the  metal  to  be  cut  is  unusually  hard,  as  frequently  oc- 
curs in  cast-iron,  the  shape  of  the  cutting  part  of  the  boring-tool 
must  be  such  that  its  point  will  enter  the  cut  first,  so  that  it  cuts 
the  inside  and  softer  metal.  The  hard  outside  metal  will  then 
break  off  with  the  shaving  without  requiring  to  be  cut  by  the  tool 
edge,  while  the  angle  of  tlie  cut  will  keep  the  tool  point  into  its 
cut  from  the  pressure  required  to  break  the  shaving.     A  tool  of 


FIO.   1.— TOOL  FOK  HARD  METAL. 

this  description  is  represented  in  the  engraving,  Fig.  1.  a  is  the 
point  of  the  tool,  and  from  a  to  B  is  the  cutting  edge  ;  the  dotted 
lines,  c  and  D,  represent  the  depth  of  the  cut,  c  being  the  inside 
skin  of  the  metal,  sup])osed  to  be  hard.  The  angle  at  which  the 
cutting  edge  stands  to  the  cut  causes  the  pressure,  due  to  tlie 
bending  and  fracturing  of  the  shaving,  to  be  in  the  direction  of  e, 
which  keeps  the  tool  jjoint  into  its  cut ;  while  the  resistance  of 
the  tool  point  to  this  force,  reacting  upon  the  cut,  from  a  to  B, 
causes  the  hard  skin  to  break  away.  For  use  on  wrought-iron, 
however,  th(!  tool  presented  below  will  work  to  bett<!r  advantage, 
it  being  a  side-tool.  In  the  event  of  a  side  face  Ix'ing  very  hard, 
it  possesses  the  advantage  that  the  ])ointof  the  tool  nuiy  be  made 
to  enter  the  cut  first,  and,  cutting  beneath  the  hard  skin,  fracture 
it  off  without  cutting  it,  the  ])rcssur('  of  the  shaving  on  tlie  tool 
kecj)iiig  th(!  bittiTto  its  cut,  as  shown  in  Fig.  2. 

/t  is  the  ciittiii<r  part  f)f  the  tool  ;  B  is  a  shaft  with  a  collar  on 
it ;  c  is  the  side  rut  being  taken  off  the  collar,  and  D  is  the  face, 
supposed  to  be  hard.  The  cut  is  luire  sliown  as  being  commenc- 
ed from  the  largest  diameter  of  thi'  collar,  and  being  fed  inward 
so  that  the  point  of  the  tool  may  cut  well  beneath  tlie  liard  face, 
]),  and  HO  that  the  pressure  of  the  cut  on  tlie  tool  may  keep  it   to 


MECHANICS. 


33 


its  cut,  as  already  explained  ;  but  tlie  tool  will  cut  equally  as  ad- 
vantageously if  the  cut  is  commenced  at  the  smallest  diameter  of 
the  collar  and  fed  outward,  if  the  skin,  D,  is  not  unusually  hard. 


rop  VIEW 


FIG.    2. — TOOl,   FOR   HARD   METAL. 

Plane-Irons,  Carpenters',  To  grind.— The 


angle 


of  a   plane- 
iron  should  be  about  25° 

Plane  Irons,  Angle  of,  to  face  of  planes.— For  soft  wood,  50°  ; 
for  mahogany,  50°  ;  for  soft  wood  for  mouldings,  55° ;  for  hard 


DEVICE   FOR   GRINDING   PLANE-IRONS. 

wood  for  mouldings,  G0\  With  this  device,  one  man  can  both 
turn  the  stone  and  grind  the  tool  much  more  accurately  than 
by  holding  it  in  his  hand. 


34  MECHANICS. 

A  is  a  piece  of  spring-steel,  8  inches  long,  bent  at  eacli  end, 
with  thumbscrew.  You  grasp  the  holder  with  the  left  hand  at 
B,  sticking  the  point,  C,  into  a  board  or  the  wall,  at  sucli  a  dis- 
tance from  the  stone  as  to  bring  the  iron,  D,  in  the  right  position 
on  the  stone.     By  raising  or  lowering  C,  the  bevel  is  regulated. 

Raws  .\nd  Springs,  Hardening. — The  usual  way  of  proceed- 
ing is  to  heat  the  saws  in  long  furnaces,  and  then  to  immerse 
them  horizontally  and  edgewise  in  a  long  trough  containing  the 
composition  ;  two  troughs  are  commonly  used  alternately.  Part 
of  the  composition  is  wiped  off  with  a  piece  of  leather,  when  the 
articles  are  removed  from  the  trough  ;  they  are  then  heated  one 
by  one  over  a  clear  coke  fire  until  the  grease  inflames  ;  this  is 
called  "  blazing  ofE."  A  greatly  recommended  composition 
consists  of  2  lbs.  of  suet  and  J  lb.  of  beeswax  to  every 
gallon  of  whale  oil  ;  these  are  boiled  together,  and  will 
serve  for  thin  articles  and  most  kinds  of  steel.  The  addi- 
tion of  black  resin,  to  the  extent  of  about  1  lb.  to  the 
gallon,  makes  it  serve  for  thicker  pieces,  and  for  those  it 
ref  usetl  to  harden  before  ;  but  the  resin  should  be  added  with 
judgment,  or  the  articles  will  become  too  liard  and  brittle.  The 
composition  is  useless  when  it  has  been  constantly  employed  for 
about  a  month  ;  the  period  depends,  however,  on  the  extent  to 
which  it  is  used,  and  the  trough  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned 
out  before  the  new  mixture  is  placed  in  it.  The  following 
recipe  is  commended  :  20  galls,  spermaceti-oil,  20  lbs. 
melted  and  strained  beef  suet,  1  gall,  neats'-foot  oil,  1  lb. 
pitch,  8  lbs.  black  resin.  These  last  two  articles  must  be 
previously  melted  together,  and  then  added  to  the  other  in- 
gredients ;  the  whole  must  then  be  heated  in  a  proper  iron 
vessel,  with  a  close  cover  fitted  to  it,  until  the  moisture  is 
entirely  evaporated,  and  the  composition  will  take  fire  on  a  flam- 
ing body  being  ])resented  to  its  surface  ;  the  flame  must  be  in- 
stantly extinguished  again  by  putting  on  the  cover  of  the  vessel. 
When  the  saws  are  wanted  to  be  rather  hard,  but  little  of  the 
grease  is  burned  off  ;  when  milder,  a  largi;  portion  ;  and  for  a 
spring  temper,  the  whole  is  allowed  to  burn  away.  When  the 
work  is  thick,  or  irregularb'  thick  and  thin,  as  in  some  springs, 
a  second  and  third  dose  is  burned  oil',  to  insure  equality  of 
temper  at  all  points  alike.  Gun-lock  springs  are  sometimes  lite- 
rally fried  in  oil  for  a  considerable  time  over  a  fire  in  an  iron  tray. 
The  thick  parts  are  then  sure  to  be  sufficiently  reduced,  and  tin; 
thin  parts  do  not  become  the  more  softened  from  the  continuance 
of  the,  blazing  heat.  Si)rings  and  saws  ap])ear  to  lose  their 
elasticity  after  hardening  and  tempering,  from  tlie  re<luction  ami 
friction  they  undergo  in  grinding  and  ])()lishing.  Toward  the 
conclusion  of  the  manufacture,  the  elasticity  of  tln^  saw  is  re- 
Ktor»!d  princii)ally  by  hammering,  and  partly  by  lu-ating  over  a 
clear  coke  fire,  to  a  straw-color  ;  the  tint  is  removed  by  very 
diluted  muriatic  aciid  ;  after  wliicli  the  saws  aro  well  washed  in 
plain  wat(,r  and  liried. 

Saws,  Band,  To  solder. — Scarf  tlio  end  of  the  saw  to  a  taper  for 
a  distance  of  two  liiu!  or  on<!  coarse  tooth,  fitting  thi;  edgtis  of  tlio 
scurf  very  true  and  level.     Clean  the  joint  with  acid,  and  clamp  the 


MECHANICS.  35 

saw  ends  together  with  a  suitable  frame  or  clamp.  Heat  the 
joint  with  a  pair  of  red-hot  tongs,  and  place  a  small  strip  of 
jeweler's  silver  solder  upon  the  joint ;  press  it  upon  the  same 
with  the  red-hot  tongs.  As  soon  as  the  solder  has  properly  run 
or  flowed,  remove  the  tongs  and  cool  the  joint  with  water,  to  re- 
store as  far  as  possible  the  temper  of  the  saw.  Then  hie  the 
joint  to  an  even  thickness  and  level  with  the  rest  of  the  saw, 
using  a  wire  gauge  as  a  template. 
Saws,  Circular,  Speeds  for  : 


Diameter  of 

saw, 

Revolutions  per  minute  for 

Eevolutions  per  minute  for 

inches. 

English  or  thin 

saws. 

American  or  thick  saws. 

36 

1000 

1500 

30 

1200 

1800 

25 

1400 

2100 

20 

1500 

2400 

15 

1800 

2700 

10 

2900 

3000 

Circular  saws  of  over  40  or  50  inches  in  diameter  are,  or  should 
be,  hammered  to  run  at  a  certain  speed.  This  is  more  important 
when  the  speed  is  as  high  as  from  700  or  900  revolutions  per 
minute.  If  a  saw  is  so  hammered  as  to  do  good  work  at  300  or 
400  revolutions  per  minute,  it  will  not  do  as  good  work  at  900,  for 
the  reason  that  the  high  speed  expands  the  outside  or  rim,  causing 
it  to  dish,  or  "  flop  around,"  as  sawyers  sometimes  express  it.  In 
such  cases,  and  when  it  is  inconvenient  to  reduce  the  speed,  it 
will  be  necessary  to  guide  the  saw  out  of  the  log  so  as  to  cause 
the  central  part  to  rub  against  the  log  enough  to  heat  it  slightly, 
thus  expanding  the  portion  that  needs  hammering.  An  expert 
sawyer  can  in  this  way  manage  indifferently  well,  though  at  an 
expense  of  considerably  more  power.  A  large  saw,  to  run  well 
at  high  speed,  should  be  hammered  in  the  centre  part  until  it  is 
slightly  dishing,  or,  as  it  is  variously  expressed,  "loose  at  the 
eye,"  or  "  rim-bound."  It  may  be  loose  at  the  eye  when  it  is  the 
reverse  of  rim-bound,  namely,  too  open  at  the  rim,  which  is  the 
most  frequent  trouble  with  such  saws.  They  all  become  so 
eventually  from  use,  and  should  then  be  rehammered. 

Saws,  Hints  concerning. — A  saw  just  large  enough  to  cut 
through  a  board  will  require  less  power  than  a  saw  larger,  the 
number  of  teeth,  speed,  and  thickness  being  equal  in  each.  The 
more  teeth,  the  more  power,  provided  the  thickness,  speed,  and 
feed  are  equal.  There  is,  however,  a  limit,  or  a  point  where  a 
few  teeth  will  not  answer  the  place  of  a  larger  number.  The 
thinner  the  saw,  the  more  teeth  will  be  required  to  carry  an  equal 
amount  of  feed  to  each  revolution  of  the  saw,  but  always  at  the 
expense  of  power.  When  bench-saws  are  used,  and  the  sawing 
is  done  by  a  gauge,  the  lumber  is  often  inclined  to  clatter  and  to 
raise  up  the  back  of  the  saw,  when  pushed  hard.  The  reason  is 
that  the  back  half  of  the  saw,  having  an  upward  motion,  has  a 
tendency  to  lift  and  raise  the  piece  being  sawn,  especially  when 
it  springs  and  pinches  on  the  saw,  or  crowds  between  the  saw  and 
the  gauge  ;  while  the  cut  at  the  front  of  the  saw  has  the  opposite 
tendency  of  holding  that  part  of  the  piece  down.     The  hook  or 


36 


MECHANICS. 


pitch  of  a  saw-tooth  should  be  on  a  line  from  J  to  ^  the  diame- 
ter of  the  saw  :  a  }  pitch  is  mostly  used  for  hard,  and  a  ,^-  for 
softer  timber.  For  very  fine-toothed  saws  designed  for  heavy 
work,  such  as  sawing  shingles,  etc.,  even  from  suit  wood,  ^  pitch 
is  best. 


SAW-TEETH. 

Saw-Teetr,  Shapes  of. — No.  1  is  a  good-shaped  tooth  for  very 
soft  wood,  the  wide  bevel  being  the  front  of  the  tooth.  The 
point  would  be  liable  to  break  or  bend  in  very  hard  wood  or  in 
knots.  No.  2  will  stand  to  saw  the  hardest  timber  or  knots,  but 
will  not  cut  as  easily  as  No.  1.  No.  3  is  a  form  of  point  general- 
ly used  for  promiscuous  sawing  of  both  liard  and  soft  wood.  The 
set  must  be  wide  enough  to  clear  the  plate.  After  filing  your 
saw,  place  it  on  a  level  board  and  pass  a  whetstone  over  tlie  side 
of  the  teeth  until  all  the  wire-edge  is  off  them.  This  will  make 
the  saw  cut  true  and  smooth,  and  it  will  remain  sliarj)  longer. 
The  saw  must  be  set  true  with  a  saw-set. 

Scrapers,  To  make. — Old  files  which  have  never  been  recut 
make  excellent  scrapers. 

Scrapers, Use  of. — All  work  should  be  fitted  as  nearly  true  as 
possible  before  being  scrajied  with  the  fiat  scraper,  which  is  in- 
tended for  fl;it  surfaces  only.  For  hollow  work,  curves,  etc.,  the 
half-round  scraper  is  the  best,  the  three-cornered  being  the  least 
efficient  of  all  scrapers. 

Taps  and  Reamers,  Finishing. — The  forgings  are  got  out  in 
the  usual  way,  left  to  anneal,  centred,  and  turned  just  sufficient  to 
remove  the  scale.  Then  anneal  again,  and  tuiii  dt)wn  to  within 
^V  iiK'h,  or  less,  of  finisliing  size.  Anni-al  once  more,  and  finish 
in  the  lathe.  If  not  sprung  in  turning,  the  taj)  or  reamer  will 
come  out  all  riglit  when  hardened.  This  hiis  been  tested  euccess- 
f'uliy  with  taps  from  i  inch  in  diameter  and  IJ  iuclies  long  up  to 
those  of  1  inch  in  diameter  and  2  feet  long. 

Taps,  Temixsring  and  hardening. — 'i'o  harden  a  tap,  heat  to  a 
cherry-red,  in  a  clear  and  not  a  blazing  lire,  or,  what  is  better, 
heat  in  cliarcoal,  liolding  tlie  tap  by  the  square  end  ;  dip  it 
endwisc!  in  the  water,  immersing  the  whole  of  the  threaded  ])nrt 
first,  and  holding  it  still  niitil  the  phiin  jiiirt  is  of  a  V(!ry  low  red  ; 
slowly  iinmer.se  the  renininder,  hnlding  it  still,  when  fully  im- 
mersed, until  it  is  (piite  cold.  'I'lien  brigliten  the  fiutes,  and  tem- 
))er  as  follows  :  lleat  a  ])iece  of  tul)i!  (with  a  bore  about  twice  tlie 
<liiimeter  and  a  length  one  lialf  that  of  the  tap)  to  a  bright  red 
lieat,  lake  it  Croni  the  fire,  set  it  iiji  vertically,  iind  hold  the  taji  in 
tin-  centre  of  thc'  tiilie,  with  the  iijaiii  puit  of  the  i;i|i  in  the  tuhi; 


MECHANICS. 


31 


and  the  thread  part  projecting.  Revolve  it  in  this  position  suffi- 
cient time  to  heat  the  plain  end  about  as  warm  as  the  hand  can 
bear  it ;  then  keep  revolving  tlie  tap  and  moving  it  endwise  back 
and  forth  through  the  tube  until  the  thread  will  color  to  a  deep 
brown  and  the  shank  to  a  brown  purple.  If  any  unevenness  ap- 
pears in  the  color,  hold  the  parts  having  the  lighter  color  a  little 
longer  in  the  tube,  or  cool  the  part  coloring  too  deeply  by  apply- 
ing a  little  oil  to  it.  Perform  the  whole  process  slowly,  taking 
the  tap  from  the  tube  to  retard  it,  if  necessary. 

Taps,  Tempering. — The  squares  of  taps  should  be  tempered  to 
a  blue. 

Taps,  To  temper,  without  springing. — Forge  the  tap  with  a 
little  more  thau  the  usual  allowance,  being  careful  not  to  heat 
too  hot,  nor  to  hammer  too  cold.  After  the  tap  is  forged,  heat  it 
and  hold  it  on  one  end  upon  the  anvil.  If  a  large  one,  hit  it  with 
the  sledge  ;  if  a  small  one,  the  hammer  will  do.  During  this  ope- 
ration, the  tap  will  give  way  on  its  weakest  side  and  become  bent. 
Do  not  attempt  to  straighten  it.  On  finishing  and  hardening  the 
tap,  it  will  become  perfectly  straight. 

Tools,  Spring  of. — To  obviate  the  spring  of  tools  which  must, 
of  necessity,  be  held  out  a  long  way  from  the  tool-post,  the  ful- 
crum off  which  the  tool  springs  must  be  adjusted  so  as  not  to  stand 
in  advance  of  the  cutting  edge  of  the  tool.  In  the  engraving,  a 
represents  the  fulcrum  off  wliich  the  tool  takes  its  spring  ;  B  is 
the  work  to  be  cut ;  and  the  dotted  line,  C,  is  the  line  in  which 


SFUING-TOOL. 


c^ 


the  point  of  the  tool  would  spring  (being  in  the  direction  denoted 
by  the  arrow),  which  is  not  in  this  case  into'  the  cut,  but  rather 


38  MECHANICS. 


away  from  u,  in  consequence  of  the  point  of  the  tool  standing 
back  from  a  line  perpendicular  to  the  line  of  the  back  part  of  the 
tool,  as  sbovvu  by  the  dotted  line,  D. 


MECHANICAL    SHOP-WRIXKLES    AND 
DIRECTIONS. 

ANNEAI.ING  Iron  and  Steel. — Save  the  scales  from  the  forge 
(oxide  of  iron)  for  this  purpose. 

Anvils,  Tempering. — This  can  be  done  by  simply  heating  the 
anvil  and  immersing  it  in  a  tank  of  cold  water  to  a  depth  of  two 
or  three  inches.     Play  a  stream  of  water  from  a  hose  on  the  face. 

Axles,  Value  of  hollow.— An  old  apprentice  of  Sir  William 
Fairbairn  writes  :  "  For  several  years  it  has  cost  me  five  dollars 
a  week  to  keep  the  bolts  on  my  trip  or  cushioned  hammer-heads 
in  repair,  and,  finding  it  to  wear  on  my  patience,  I  tried  all  kinds 
of  iron,  but  to  no  use  ;  break  they  would.  I  finally  bored  a  hole, 
one  third  the  diameter  of  the  bolts  (1^  in.),  and  put  a  |  in. 
hole  down,  some  way  below  the  thread,  which  formed  a  tube.  I 
have  now  run  them  for  three  months,  and  they  show  no  signs  of 
giving  out.  The  wrench  used  would  break  the  other  bolts  easily  ; 
but  it  can  not  do  so  with  these.  My  work  on  spindles  requires 
the  dies  to  snap  together  about  nine  times  in  ten,  which  tells  very 
severely  on  the  bolts." 

Bkxding  Coi'I'EH  Pipes. — Fill  thorn  with  resin  or  lead,  which 
will  prevent  them  from  buckling  in  the  bends. 

Bolts  and  Studs,  Standing.— When  these  are  placed  in  posi- 
tions liable  to  corrode  them,  they  should  have  the  standing  ends 
I  in.  larger  than  the  end  receiving  the  nut,  and  the  plain  part 
should  be  square.  By  this  means  a  wrench  may  be  apj)ned  to 
extract  them  when  necessary.  The  stud,  also,  is  not  so  likely  to 
break  off  in  consecjucncc;  of  weakness  at  the  junction  of  the  thread 
and  the  plain  jjart,  where  the  groove  to  relieve  the  terminati(m  of 
the  thread  is  cut. 

Bolts  oh  Studs,  Standing,  To  unscrew.— Studs  that  have  be- 
come so  corroded  in  their  liolcs  that  they  are  liabh;  to  break  off. 
should  be  well  warmed  by  a  red-hot  washer  ;  becausii  the  strength 
of  the  stud  increases  ])y  being  hi-ated  up  to  about  400"  Fahr.,  and 
therefore  studs  which  readily  twist  off  when  cold  will  unscrew 
when  heated  to  about  that  teniperatun-.  Nuts  upon  standing 
bolls  of  studs,  in  the  smoke-boxes  of  locomotives,  or  in  similar 
l)ositionH,  whidi  have  become  so  corroded  as  to  endanger  twisting 
off,  should  b(!  cut  through  on  one  side  with  a  cape  or  cross-cut 
cliisel,  thus  saving  tlie  stud  at  the  expense  of  the  nut.  The  split 
must  be  cut  from  the  end  face  of  the  nut  to  the  bedding  face. 

BUAHSKS,  Bedding  down.  — In  bedding  down  brasses  or  journal- 
lK)xes  of  any  description,  tlie  following  i)lan  should  b<-  einploycfd 
to  gauge  liow  much  requires  to  be  chipped  or  filed  away  from  any 


MECHANICS.  39 


part  or  parts  of  the  bed  of  the  brass  to  enable  it  to  bed  to  its  seat 
all  over  :  Take  ordinary  red  marking  (which  should  be  composed 
of  Venetian-red  and  common  oil,  mixed  to  the  consistence  of  a 
thick  paint),  and  paint  over  the  vrhole  bed  into  which  brass  is  to 
be  fitted.  Then  take  some  putty  (mixed  stiffly),  and  rolling  it 
into  pellets  about  the  size  of  a  large  pea,  place  them  here  and 
there  upon  the  painted  surface.  Then  drive  the  brass  home,  and 
drive  it  out  again,  when  it  will  be  found  that  the  thickness  to 
which  the  pellets  have  been  smashed  by  the  bottom  of  the  brass 
registers  to  the  greatest  possible  exactitude  how  near  the  bottom, 
of  the  brass  comes  to  the  bed  of  the  bottom  of  the  bearing,  indi- 
cating precisely  the  amount  to  be  chipped  and  filed  ofE  the  bottom 
of  the  brass  to  bed  it.  It  is  better,  however,  to  be  careful  not  to 
take  too  much  off  at  first,  and  to  repeat  the  process  with  the  pel- 
lets. It  must  be  borne  in  mind  carefully  to  replace  the  old  pel- 
lets with  new  ones  at  each  trial,  otherwise  you  will  be  misled. 
The  object  of  painting  the  bottom  of  the  box  with  red  marking, 
before  placing  the  pellets,  is  to  cause  the  latter  to  stick  to  the 
box  and  not  to  the  brass,  and  to  prevent  them  from  falling  out 
when  the  box  is  turned  upside  down  to  drive  the  brass  out.  This 
is  the  only  practical  method  of  ascertaining  how  much  to  take  off 
a  brass  to'  bed  it,  and  will  be  found  an  easily  applied  and  almost 
invaluable  assistance. 

Brasses,  Fitting. — In  doing  this,  a  piece  of  wood  must  be 
used  to  hammer  on  in  driving  them  in  and  out,  since  driving 
them  with  the  bare  hammer,  a  piece  of  metal,  or  a  mandril, 
stretches  the  skin  and  enlarges  the  diameter  across  the  bore  ; 
then  when  the  brasses  are  bored  and  the  stretched  skin  is  con- 
sequently removed,  the  brass  resumes  its  original  shape,  and 
hence  becomes  loose  in  the  strap  or  box.  In  fitting  brasses  to 
their  places,  leave  them  a  little  too  tight,  since  all  brasses  con- 
tract a  little  across  the  bore  in  consequence  of  the  process  of 
boring.  This  rule  applies  also  to  journal-boxes  of  cast-iron  or 
any  other  metal. 

Brasses,  Setting. — In  setting  brasses  or  any  other  journal- 
boxes  to  be  bored,  place  a  piece  of  sheet-tin  between  the  joint  of 
the  brasses,  and  bore  the  brasses  or  boxes  the  thickness  of  the 
tin  too  large,  which  thickness  may  be  gauged  by  placing  a  small 
piece  of  the  same  tin  under  the  leg  of  the  inside  calipers  when 
trying  the  bore.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  practice  demon- 
strates it  to  be  an  invariable  rule  that  a  half-circle  or  half-hole, 
whether  in  a  movable  brass  or  in  a  solid  box,  will  never  fit 
down  upon  its  journal,  but  will  bind  upon  the  edges  across  the 
diameter,  and  must  therefore  be  scraped  or  filed  on  the  sides  to 
let  the  crown  down.  This  defect  is  obviated  by  the  employment 
of  the  sheet-tin  as  described,  which  will  save  three  fourths  of 
the  time  usually  required  to  fit  such  work  to  a  good  bearing. 
This  plan  is  highly  advantageous  in  boring  eccentric  straps  and 
large  brasses  ;  and  the  larger  the  size,  the  thicker  the  tin  may  be. 

Brass  Turnings  and  Filings,  To  melt,  with  little  waste. — 
Compress  in  a  crucible  until  it  is  full,  then  cover,  and  lute  the 
top  with  pipe  or  fire-clay. 


40  MECHAXICS. 

Burr  Stones.  Filling  holes  in. — Use  melted  alum  mixed  with 
burr-stone  pulverized  to  the  size  of  grains  of  saud. 

Burrs,  To  prevent  heating, — Dress  from  centre  to  circum- 
ference, leaving  no  bosom.  Draw  a  line  across  the  centre,  each 
way,  dividing  a  four-foot  burr  into  16  squares  or  divisions,  and 
other  sizes,  more  or  less,  in  the  same  proportion,  with  all  straight 
furrows.  Let  the  draft  be  ^  the  diameter  of  the  rock.  Lay  off 
the  lands  and  furrows  J  inch  each,  observing  to  dress  smooth. 
Sink  the  furrow  at  the  eye  i  inch  deep  for  corn,  and  run  out  to 
tV  at  the  periphery  ;  for  wlieat,  1%  at  the  eye,  and  ^  at  the  peri- 
phery. When  thus  finished,  crack  the  lands  in  straight  lines, 
square  with  the  draft  of  cross-lines,  so  as  to  make  the  lands  face 
in  the  runner  and  bed  direct.     This  will  never  heat. 

Carpenter's  Bench,  To  make  a. — Take  three  pieces  of  2  x  5 
in.  stuff,  3  feet  long,  for  supports  for  top.  Take  two  12  in. 
boards,  13  feet  long  and  1  in.  thick,  for  sides  ;  nail  the  side- 
boards firmly  on  to  the  ends  of  the  3x5  cross-pieces,  and  j)ut  ou 
a  top  of  suitable  material,  and  you  liave  a  bench  without  legs. 
Then  take  four  pieces  of  2x5in.  stuff"  of  the  desired  height  for 
the  legs,  and  frame  a  piece  1x3  inches  across  each  pair  of  legs, 
6  inches  from  the  bottom  of  tlie  leg,  putting  the  legs  at  the  pro- 
per distance  apart  for  width  of  bench.  Cut  a  fork  or  slit  in  the 
toji  end  of  each  leg,  s.o  as  to  straddle  the  crOSs-piece  at  the  ends  ; 
put  a  3^  X  f  in.  bolt  through  each  leg  and  the  side-board,  and 
you  have  a  good  solid  bench,  that  can  be  taken  down  in  five 
minutes  by  simply  removing  the  four  bolts.  It  can  also  be  taken 
through  any  door  or  window,  or  down  or  up  stairs,  or  to  any 
place  required. 

Castings,  Brass. — These  shrink  I  inch  to  the  foot  in  cooling. 

Castings,  Copper,  To  prevent  air-holes  in. — Cast  in  green  sand, 
and  not  in  dried  moulds,  using  lA  lbs.  zinc  as  a  flue,  as  pure 
copper  will  not  run  sufficiently  freely  to  prevent  honeycombing. 

Castings,  Copper. — These  shrink  i  inch  to  the  foot  in  cooling 
in  the  moulds,  and  also  shrink  (as  do  all  other  castings)  most 
where  there  is  the  greatest  substance  of  metal. 

Castings,  Holes  in,  To  prevent. — In  casting  iron  on  iron  or 
steel  spindles,  the  moulds  are  cast  endwise,  letting  the  cast 
metal  covering  the  spindle  be  an  inch  longer  on  the  uppermost 
side  than  is  necessary  when  the  job  is  finished  ;  tlius  the  air- 
holes, if  any,  will  form  in  the  extra  inch  of  lengtli,  aud  may  be 
cut  off  in  tlu!  lathe. 

Castings,  Ikon. — These  shrink  ^  inch  to  the  foot  in  cooling  in 
the  moulds. 

C.\HTiNGS,  Slirinkage  of. — Slirinkagn  sideways  and  endwise,  on 
castings  of  3  inches  and  less  size,  is  conipensattHl  for  by  the 
shake  in  the  sand  given  by  tlie  moulder  to  the  pattern  in  order 
to  extract  it  from  tlio  mould. 

Cahtin<is,  Small.  —  In  very  small  castings  re(|uiring  to  be  of 
correct  size,  allowance  should  be  made  in  tlie  pattern  for  tlie 
shako  of  tlie  ])attern  in  tlu;  sand,  thus  :  A  i)attern  of  an  inch  cube 
will  refjuire  to  be  made  ^.^  inch  less  endwise  and  sideways,  and 


MECHANICS. 


41 


tlie  usual  allowance  above  an  inch  must  be  made  on  the  top  face 
of  the  pattern,  which  should  have  "  top"  marked  on  it ;  thus  the 
shake  endwise  and  sideways  given  to  the  pattern,  in  order  to  ex- 
tract it  without  lifting  the  sand,  will  be  allowed  for  in  the  size 
of  the  pattern.  The  effect  of  this  shake  in  the  sand  is  appreci- 
able in  patterns  tip  to  about  four  inches  diameter.  It  is  a  com- 
mon practice  to  cool  brass  castings  in  order  to  loosen  or  remove 
the  sand  from  the  surfaces.  The  effect  is  to  place  conflicting 
strains  and  tensions  tipon  tlie  whole  skin  of  the  metal,  which  will 
alter  its  shape  when  the  outer  skin  of  such  faces  is  removed  ;  so 
that,  supposing  the  casting  to  be  a  cube,  no  one  face  will  be 
either  true  of  itself  or  with  the  others  when  it  has  been  planed, 
no  matter  how  true  the  surfacing  may  have  been  performed. 

Castings,  Smooth. — A  means  highly  recommended  for  obtain- 
ing very  smooth  castings,  is  mixing  with  the  green  foundry  sand 
forming  the  mould  about  2T)  part  of  tar,  a  mixture  which  is  em- 
ployed without  the  addition  of  any  other  substance. 

Castings,  To  estimate  the  weight  of. — 


A  pattern  weighing  1  lb.,  and  made 
of 


Mahogany 

(St.  Domingo) 

Maple 

Beech 

Cedar 

Yellow  Pine 

White  Pine 


Will  weisrli  when  cast  in 


Cast 
Iron. 

Zinc. 

Copper. 

Yellow 
Brass. 

8 

8 

10 

9.8 

10 

9.5 

12 

11.5 

10 

9.8 

12.5 

12 

11 

11 

14 

13.4 

11.5 

11.4 

14.5 

14 

13 

12.6 

16 

15.5 

14 

14.5 

18 

17.5 

Gun 

Metal. 


10 

12 

12.4 

13.8 

14.5 

16 

17.8 


Example  :  The  pattern  of  a  wheel  made  of  cedar  weighs  8  lbs, 
how  much  will  a  casting  of  iron  weigh  1  8  lbs.  weight  of  pat- 
tern multiplied  by  11.5,  which  is  the  multiplier  for  iron  set  oppo- 
site cedar,  equals  92.0  weight  of  casting. 

Chuck-Cement,  Removing,  from  lathe-work. — Warm  the  ob- 
ject over  a  spirit-lamp,  and  tap  lightly  with  a  stiff  brush  ;  the 
wax  will  adhere  to  the  latter.  If  in  a  hurry,  a  few  seconds'  boil- 
ing in  alcohol  will  remove  the  remainder  of  the  wax. 

Chuck-Lathe,  An  electric. — In  order  to  obviate  the  inconve- 
nience and  loss  of  time  involved  in  the  ordinary  mode  of  fixing 
upon  a  lathe-chuck  certain  special  kinds  of  work,  such  as  thin 
steel  disks  or  small  circular-saws,  the  chuck  may  be  converted 
into  a  temporary  magnet,  so  that  the  articles,  when  simply  placed 
on  the  face  of  the  chuck,  are  held  there  by  the  attraction  of  the 
magnet  ;  and,  when  finished,  can  be  readily  detached  by  merely 
breaking  the  electric  ctirrent  and  demagnetizing  the  chuck.  The 
face-plate  of  the  magnetic  chuck  is  composed  of  a  central  core  of 
soft  iron,  surrounded  by  an  iron  tube,  the  two  being  kept  apart 
by  an  intermediate  brass  ring  ;  and  the  tube  and  core  are  each 


42  MECHANICS. 

surrounded  by  a  coil  of  insulated  copper  wire,  the  ends  of  which 
are  connected  by  two  brass  contact-rings  that  encircle  the  case 
containing  the  entire  electro-magnet  thus  formed.  These  rings 
are  grooved,  and  receive  the  ends  of  a  pair  of  metal  springs  con- 
nected with  the  terminal  wires  of  a  battery,  whereby  the  chuck  is 
converted  into  an  electro-magnet  capable  of  holding  firmly  on  its 
face  the  article  to  be  turned  or  ground.  For  holding  articles  of 
larger  diameter,  it  is  found  more  convenient  to  use  an  ordinary 
face-plate,  simply  divided  into  halves  by  a  thin  brass  strip  across 
the  centre  ;  a  horseshoe-magnet,  consisting  of  a  bent  bar  of  soft 
iron,  with  a  coil  of  copper  wire  around  each  leg,  is  fixed  behind 
the  face-plate,  each  half  of  which  is  thus  converted  into  one  of 
the  poles  of  the  magnet.  The  whole  is  inclosed  in  a  cylindrical 
brass  casing,  and  two  brass  contact-rings,  fixed  around  this  casing, 
are  insulated  by  a  ring  of  ebonite,  and  are  connected  with  the  two 
terminal  wires  of  the  magnet-coils.  A  similar  arrangement  is 
also  adapted  for  holding  work  upon  the  bed  of  a  planing  or  drill- 
ing machine,  in  which  case  the  brass  contact-rings  may  be  dis- 
pensed with,  and  any  desired  number  of  pairs  of  the  electro-mag- 
netic face-plates  are  combined  so  as  to  form  an  extended  surface 
large  enough  to  carry  large  pieces  of  work.  For  exciting  the 
electro-magnet,  any  ordinary  battery  that  will  produce  a  continu- 
ous current  of  electricity  can  be  used. 

Cocks,  To  grind  plugs  in. — The  best  material  for  this  purpose 
is  the  red,  well-burnt  sand  from  the  core  of  a  brass  casting,  the 
sand  being  sifted,  before  using,  through  fine  wire  gauze.  It  will 
cut  more  truly  and  smoothly  than  any  other  material,  and  should 
be  used  with  water,  and  not  oil.  After  the  cock  is  sufficiently 
ground,  wash  it  and  the  barrel  with  clean  water  ;  and  after  wip- 
ing them  comparatively  but  not  quite  dry,  revolve  the  plug 
backward  and  forward  in  its  place  under  a  slight  pressure,  and 
the  surface  will  assume  a  rich  Ijrown  color,  showing  very  dis- 
tinctly the  precise  nature  of  the  fit,  and  leaving  a  smooth  sur- 
face, free  from  grit  and  not  liable  to  either  jam  or  abrade. 
Valves  may  be  ground  to  their  seats  in  a  similar  manner. 

Cones  in  Holes,  Fitting. — Rub  the  cone  with  either  red  mark- 
ing or  else  chalk,  giving  it  in  either  case  a  very  thin  coat.  A 
narrow  strip  of  marking,  running  from  end  of  the  cone,  will  do. 
Put  tlie  cone  into  its  place,  press  it  forward  and  revolve  it  back 
and  forth,  and  the  marks  will  show  wlu-rc  it  binds. 

CoNNECTiNG-KODS,  Fitting. — When  the  cross-head  and  crank- 
pin  are  in  their  places  upon  the  engine,  fitting  may  b(^  done 
as  follows  :  Connect  the  cro.ss-head  end  of  the  rod  in  its  place 
upon  the  cross-head  journal,  keeping  the  other  end  clear  of  the 
crank-pin;  put  the  l)rass('s  and  keys  in  their  idaces  in  the  rod 
end,  then  lower  tlir-  crank-jiin  end  ujion  tin-  crank-pin  journal, 
which  will  sliow  wlietlier  tlie  cross  head  journal  leads  true  ;  if 
it  does  not,  move  the  crank-i)in  end  of  the  rod  Ijack  and  forth, 
exerting  a  side  j)rcsHure  on  it  in  the  direction  in  wliich  it  wants 
to  go,  so  us  to  ))lainlv  mark  where  the  connecting-rod  brasses  of 
the  cross-head  end  rei|uire  easing;  and  after  th(!  crossliead  end 
is  adjusted,  put  tlie  crank-pin  of  the  rod  upon  its  place  upon  the 


MECHANICS.  43 

crank-pin,  keeping  the  cross-head  end  clear  of  the  cross-head  ; 
put  the  brasses,  keys,  etc.,  in  their  places,  and  proceed  as  before. 
Red  marking  should  be  rubbed  on  both  the  crauk-pin  and  cross- 
head  journals,  so  as  to  mark  the  brasses  plainly.  A  halt-round 
file  and  half-round  scraper  should  be  used  to  adjust  and  ease 
the  brasses. 

CONNECTING-EOD  STRAPS,  To  close  the  jaws  of. — If  the  jaws 
are  too  wide  at  the  points,  rest  the  stra^)  upon  the  two  ends,  and 
(with  a  round  pene-hammer)  lightly  hammer  the  outside  of  the 
crown  of  the  strap  all  over,  taking  care  to  hammer  it  evenly,  so 
as  not  to  leave  any  deep  hammer-marks. 

Connecting-rod  Straps. — To  open  the  jaws  of  a  connecting- 
rod  strap,  hammer  the  inside  face  of  the  crown  of  the  strap  lightly 
and  evenly  all  over  with  a  round  pene-hammer.  To  bring  back  to 
its  original  shape  a  strap  that  has  been  opened  or  closed  in  its 
width  between  the  jaws,  by  being  pened  with  a  hammer,  remove 
by  filing  ^^^  inch  in  depth  of  the  surface  that  has  been  hammered, 
or  heat  the  part  hammered  to  a  low  red  heat. 

Connecting-rod  Straps,  Refitting,  to  rods.— Place  the  gib  and 
key  in  the  strap  to  prevent  it  from  warping,  and  heat  the  crown  end 
of  the  strap  to  a  bright  red  ;  on  taking  it  from  the  fire,  remove 
the  scale  by  lightly  filing  with  a  coarse  file ;  then  plunge  the 
strap  to  nearly  half  the  thickness  of  the  crown  in  water,  and 
after  holding  it  there  for  about  ten  seconds,  slowly  immerse  the 
remainder  of  the  strap  in  the  water,  and  withdraw  when  quite 
cold.  It  will  be  found  to  have  closed  along  its  whole  length,  al- 
though mostly  at  the  points. 

Copper  or  Brass,  To  soften. — Heat  to  a  low  red  heat,  and 
plunge  in  salt  water. 

Copper,  To  harden. — Copper  may  be  slightly  hardened  by 
closing  the  grain.  This  can  be  done  by  lightly  hammering  its 
surface  with  a  round  pene-hammer. 

CoRtrNDUM-WHEELS,  To  true. — The  wheel  being  adjusted  in 
the  lathe,  revolve  it  very  fast,  holding  a  piece  of  corundum-stone 
against  the  uneven  or  wabbling  surface.  In  a  short  time,  the 
piece  will  melt  and  tinite  itself  to  the  wheel,  so  as  to  make  the 
latter  perfectly  true. 

Cotton- Waste,  To  clean  greasy. — Boil  it  in  a  strong  solution 
of  common  soda  in  water,  and  save  the  resultant  soapy  liquid  to 
keep  your  drills  and  reamers  wet  when  boring  iron. 

Crank-pins,  Riveting. — In  riveting  over  the  end  of  a  crank- 
pin,  apply  the  hammer  most  around  the  outer  circumference  and 
least  toward  the  centre  ;  this  will  prevent  the  riveted  end  from 
splitting. 

Emery,  for  grinding  purposes.  To  prepare  fine. — When  no 
fine  emery  is  at  hand,  place  coarse  emery  upon  an  iron  block  or 
plate,  and  hammer  it  well  with  the  face  end  of  the  hammer ;  after 
which,  grind  it  by  abrasion  with  the  hammer  face. 

Emery- Wheels,    Speed  of. — A   G-inch    emery-wheel    should 


44  MECHANICS. 


make  about  3400  revolutions  per  minute  ;  an  S-incli,  1800  ;  a  12- 
incU, 1200. 

Engine-room  Chairs. — Good  chairs  for  engine-roona  or  factory 
use  are  easily  made  of  light  gas-pipe. 

Grease,  To  clean,  from  bolts. — Moisten  in  benzine,  roll  in  saw- 
dust, and  brush  afterward. 

Grindstones,  Care  of. — These  should  never  be  left  in  the  sun- 
lijrht,  or  with  one  side  standing  in  water,  since  heat  evaporates  the 
water  in  the  stone,  leaving  it  harsh  and  hard,  wliile  saturation 
softens  it.  The  grindstone  is  a  self-sharpening  tool ;  and  after 
being  turned  in  one  direction  for  some  time  (if  a  hard  stone), 
the  motion  should  be  reversed.  Sand  of  the  right  grit  applied 
occasionally  to  a  hard  stone  will  improve  it. 

Grindstones,  Selecting. — When  you  get  a  stone  that  suits 
your  purpose,  send  a  sample  to  the  dealer  to  select  by;  a  half- 
ounce  sample  is  enough,  and  can  be  sent  by  mail. 

Grindstone-Si'indles. — Common  grindstone-spindles,  with  a 
crank  at  one  end,  are  open  to  the  objection  that  the  stone  will 
never  keep  round,  because  every  person  is  inclined,  more  or  less, 
to  follow  the  motion  of  his  foot  with  his  liand,  which  causes  the 
pressure  on  the  stone  to  be  unequal.  The  harder  pressure  is  al- 
ways applied  to  the  very  same  part  of  the  stone,  and  will  soon 
make  it  uneven,  so  that  it  is  impossible  to  grind  a  tool  true.  To 
avoid  this,  put  in  place  of  the  crank  a  small  cog-wheel  to  the 
spindle,  say  with  twelve  cogs  ;  have  another  short  spindle,  with 
a  crank  and  a  cog-wheel  of  tliirteen  cogs,  to  work  into  the  former. 
The  stone  will  make  about  0.07  of  a  revolution  more  than  tlie 
crank,  and  tlie  harder  pressure  of  the  tool  on  the  stone  will  change 
to  anotlier  place  at  every  turn  ;  and  the  stone  will  keep  perfectly 
round  if  it  is  a  good  one. 

Grindstone,  To  true  a  carpenter's. — Use  a  J-inch  bar  of  iron, 
or  a  gas-pipe,  for  a  turning  tool,  held  below  the  centre  of  the 
stone. 

Hardening,  To  prevent  cracking  of  metals  wliile. — Heat  the 
water  as  hot  a.s  bearable  to  the  liands,  dip  tlie  metal  endwise,  and 
immerse  with  the  thickest  part  of  the  metal  downward.  When 
fully  immersed,  hold  the  metal  still  until  it  is  quite  cold. 

Ikon,  Cast,  To  harden. — Inlj  gallons  of  clean  water,  mix  \  i)int 
oil  of  vitriol  and  2  ozs.  saltpetre.  Heat  the  iron  to  a  cherry-red, 
and  dip  as  usual. 

Tuo.\,  C.vst,  Mixture  for  cast-iron  cylinders,  reriuiring  to  bo 
liard. — 'I'wenly  pounds  charcoal  j>ig  So.  .'j,  40  lbs.  Scotch  pig,  JJOO 
lbs.  scrap-iron. 

TuoN,  Cast,  Mixture  for  strong  and  clos(i-grained  cast-iron  for 
steam  cylinilers,  (Me. — Eighty  pounds  charcoal  pig  No.  T),  100  lbs. 
Scotcli  i)ig,  and  100  lbs.  8<Tap-iron. 

Ikon,  M.M-i.icaiw.k.  Cast,  To  harden. — Mix  eciual  parts  of  com- 
mon j)otash,  saltpeln-,  and  Huli)hate  of  zinc,  and  use  as  directed 
for  ]>ru8Hiut<!  of  potasli. 


MECHANICS.  45 

Iron  Plate,  To  straigliten  a  curved. — Hammer  it  liglitly  with 
a  round  pene-liammer  ou  the  hollow  side. 

Iron  Plates  with  true,  flat  surfaces. — To  make  a  true  surface- 
plate,  it  is  necessary  to  plane  up  three  plates,  which  we  will 
term  A,  B,  and  C.  First  fit  the  faces  of  A  and  B  together  as 
nearly  as  possible  with  a  smooth  file  (using  a  hardly  perceptible 
coating  of  Venetian-red  and  common  oil  applied  to  A,  to  show  by 
the  marks  where  the  faces  touch).  Then  file  C  to  fit  A.  Then 
try  C  with  B  ;  and  if  they  mark  all  over  the  faces,  they  are  true, 
and  the  surfaces  may  be  finished  by  the  scraper,  trying  them  re- 
peatedly as  above.  If,  however,  C  and  B  should  be  found  to  fit 
on  the  edges  only,  it  would  demonstrate  that  A  and  B,  though 
fitting,  are  not  fiat  surfaces  ;  but  that  A  is  hollow  and  B  round- 
ing. Having  corrected  these  defects  as  nearly  as  possible,  apply 
B  to  C,  again  repeating  the  connecting  process  until  all  three  sur- 
faces, applied  interchangeably,  mark  evenly  all  over,  when  the 
surface  of  each  will  be  practically  true.  It  must,  however,  be 
borne  in  mind  that,  after  rubbing  the  surfaces  together  to  test 
them,  tlie  middle  of  each  plate  will  (from  having  received  the 
most  abrasion)  show  the  marks  the  plainest,  so  that  the  plates 
will  be  more  nearly  true  if  the  marks  show  a  little  the  plainest 
at  and  near  their  edges,  and  less  plain  toward  the  centres.  The 
back  of  each  plate  should  be  planed  off,  care  being  taken  that  it 
rests  evenly  upon  the  bench,  so  that  neither  plate  shall  deflect 
from  its  own  weight,  as  it  would  do  if  its  weight  were  not  sup- 
ported evenly  upon  the  face  resting  upon  the  bench.  The  scrap- 
er should  be  used  dry  upon  cast-iron,  and  kept  moistened  with 
water  for  steel,  wrought-iron,  and  brass. 

Iron,  Eed-hot,  To  mark  measures  on.— Blacksmiths  fre- 
quently measure  a  piece  of  iron,  and  put  chalk-marks  where  they 
desire  to  cut  it.  The  iron  may  then  be  placed  in  the  fire  and 
heated  to  a  bright  red  without  effacing  the  marks. 

Iron,  To  remove  hard  skin  from. — Hard  skin  on  iron  is  due  to 
heat  and  friction,  and  may  be  removed  by  heating  to  a  dull  red, 
filing  the  surface,  and  putting  the  iron  to  cool  in  lime  or  ashes. 

Iron,  Wrought,  Contraction  of. — Wrought-iron  may  be  made 
to  contract  to  a  slight  extent  l)y  heating  it  to  a  low  red  heat,  and 
quenching  it  in  water.  The  first  operation  only,  however,  is  ef- 
fective. This  plan  is  used  to  shorten  eccentric  rods,  etc.,  to  avoid 
getting  them  out  of  true  by  upsetting  them  with  blacksmiths' 
tools. 

Iron,  Wrought,  To  close  holes  in. — If  a  washer  or  other 
piece  of  wrought-iron  is  a  trifle  too  large,  fill  the  hole  and  part  of 
the  outside  faces  with  fire-clay  ;  heat  the  iron  to  a  bright  red,  and 
plunge  it  in  cold  water.  The  contraction  of  the  circumferential 
iron  will  squeeze  the  metal  round  the  hole  (which  has  been  pre- 
vented from  cooling  so  rapidly  by  the  clay)  inward,  diminishing 
the  size  of  the  hole.  To  refit  a  bolt  to  a  hole  in  which  it  has 
worn  a  trifle  loose,  case-harden  it  by  the  prussiate  of  potash  pro- 
cess, which  will  increase  the  diameter  of  the  bolt.  If  it  fits  into 
a  hole  of  wrought-iron  or  steel,  that  too  may  be  case-hardened, 
which  will  diminish  its  size,  and  thus  refit  it  "to  the  bolt. 


4fi  MECHANICS. 

Joints,  Rubber. — In  making  a  rubber  joint,  take  a  piece  of 
chalk  and  rub  it  on  the  side  of  the  rubber  and  tiange  where  the 
joint  is  to  open  ;  and  wlien  required,  they  will  come  apart  easily, 
and  not  break  the  rubber,  although  the  latter  may  be  burnt  and 
hard.  Repeat  the  chalking  before  screwing  up,  and  you  will 
have  as  good  a  joint  as  ever,  and  the  rubber  can  be  used  a  great 
number  of  times. 

Keys,  Driving. — Drive  the  key  into  the  keyway  to  mark  where 
it  binds.  The  keyway  should  be  oiled  first,  especially  if  the 
metal  is  cast-iron  ;  otherwise  the  surfaces  are  liable  to  seize  a 
cut,  making  it  very  difficult  to  drive  the  keys  out,  and  cutting 
ragged  grooves  in  both  the  keyway  and  the  key.  The  same 
rule  applies  to  crank-pins  and  all  similar  work. 

Keys,  To  make. — These  should  be  made  to  fit  the  key  ways  at  a . 
good  fit  on  the  sides  without  being  tight,  the  locking  being  per- 
formed by  the  taper  of  the  top  and  bottom,  the  amount  of  which 
should  be  about  i  inch  per  foot  of  length. 

Keywat  and  Slots,  To  ease,  Avhen  hardened. — Take  a  strip  of 
copper  and  use  it  as  a  file,  applying  oil  and  fine  emery  upon  the 
surface  of  the  work. 

Lathe,  Setting  work  on  the  face-plate  of  a. — Let  the  work  be 
set  out  and  first  lightly  prick-punched  ;  then  clamp  to  place  light- 
ly as  near  as  possible,  but  never  set  the  "  dead-centre"  against 
the  work,  for  that  will  not  bring  it  true  ;  now  with  a  scratchawl 
or  sharp-pointed  centre,  with  the  point  resting  in  the  prick-mark, 
and  the  other  end  held  against  or  on  the  dead  centre,  revolve  the 
work.  If  the  point  marked  for  the  centre  of  the  hole  is  out  of 
true,  the  scratch-awl,  or  whatever  rests  in  the  point,  will  vibrate. 
Put  into  the  lathe-rest  a  tool,  without  fastening  it,  and  push  it 
up  to  the  scratch  as  the  work  is  revolved,  and  the  extent  of  the 
vibration  can  be  seen.  Tlie  work  can  be  driven  as  thus  indicat- 
ed when  there  is  no  vibration  of  the  scratch  or  centre,  the  work 
is  perfectly  set,  and  may  be  securely  fastened. 

Liners,  Thickness  of. — To  ascertain  the  proper  thickness  of  a 
liner  or  strip  necessary  to  go  between  a  pair  of  brasses  so  that 
(wiien  the  faces  do  not  meet)  the  liner  may  be  placed  between 
theni  and  the  brasses,  when  bolfeil  up  tight,  without  jamming 
the  journal,  jilace  a  ])iece  of  lead  winHM't  ween  the  brasses,  and 
then  screw  thi^  caj)  down  tight,  and  the  lead  wir(>  will  comjiress, 
denoting  the  necessary  thickness  of  liner.  The  latter  should  be 
made  a  sliade  thicker  than  the  distance  the  wire  was  compress- 
ed, so  that  the  brasses  may  fit  witliDut  binding  the;  journal. 

Links, To  clos('  a  (luadrant  or  link  that  has  sprung  or  opened  in 
liardening. — C'lamp  it  with  bolts  and  plates,  placing  the  die  in  tlie 
slot  to  Hup|)ort  any  ])art  which  does  not  require  to  be  closed.  2'(9 
open  Old  xlol  of  (I  (piiidrant  or  link  tlutl  hus  closed  in  being  hardened  : 
Take  two  kej-s  having  an  e<jiiul  amount  of  taper  upon  tliein,  and 
l>lace  th(!ni  togeiiii-r  so  tlmt  their  outside  edges  are  j>aral]ei.  In- 
H<!rt  ilieiM  in  tliiit  pait  of  tli(^  slot  which  reipiires  to  be  o])ene(l, 
•and  Iioldiiig  a  liainnier  auainst  tin;  head  f)f  one  key  <n\  one  side 
of  th*!  link,  driv(!  in  flu;  other  key  with  a  luimmer  on  the  other 
Hid<!  of  the  link.     After  tlu^  key  is  driven  as  far  in  as  the  judg- 


MECHANICS.  41 

ment  suggests,  measure  the  width  of  the  slot,  so  that,  if  the  ope- 
ration was  not  performed  to  a  sufficient  extent  on  the  first  at- 
tempt, the  operator  may  judge  how  much  to  essay  at  the  second, 
and  so  on.  To  prevent,  as  fa?'  as  possible,  a  slot  link  or  quadrant 
from  altering  its  shape  in  the  process  of  hardening  :  Fit  into  tlie 
slot,  at  various  parts  along  its  length,  pieces  of  iron  of  the  same 
diameter  as  the  die  intended  to  work  in  the  slot,  and  in  quench- 
ing the  quadrant,  immerse  it  endwise  and  vertically. 

Nails  into  hard  wood.  To  drive. — Dip  in  grease  to  assist  pene- 
tration. 

Nuts,  Tight,  To  ease. — To  ease  a  nut  that  is  a  little  too  tight 
upon  a  bolt,  place  it  upon  the  bolt,  and,  resting  it  upon  an  iron 
anvil  or  block,  strike  the  upper  side  with  a  hammer,  turning  the 
nut  so  that  not  more  than  two  blows  will  fall  upon  the  same 
face.  The  smaller  the  nut,  the  lighter  the  blows  should  be,  and 
vice  versa. 

Nuts,  Tight,  To  unscrew. — To  start  a  nut  that  is  corroded  in  its 
place,  so  that  an  ordinary  wrench  fails  to  move  it,  strike  a  few 
sharp  blows  upon  its  end  face  ;  then  holding  a  dull  chisel  across 
the  chamfer  of  the  nut,  strike  the  chisel-head  several  sharp 
blows,  which  will,  in  a  majority  of  cases,  effect  the  object. 

Patterns,  Cast-iron. — These  should  have  their  surfaces  smooth- 
ed, and  be  then  slightly  heated  and  waxed  all  over  with  the  best 
beeswax. 

Patterns  for  Brass  Bed-Pieces. — In  making  a  pattern  for 
a  brass  bedding  in  a  circular  bed,  first  make  the  pattern  at  the 
same  curve  as  the  bed,  and  then  pare  off  the  centre  of  the  crown- 
bed  about  ^-  inch  for  every  inch  of  diameter  of  bore  of  the  brass  ; 
the  reasons  for  this  are  explained  in  treating  of  patterns  for  semi- 
octagonal  bedding-brasses. 

Patterns  for  Brasses. — In  making  a  pattern  for  a  brass  to 
fit  in  a  semi-octagonal  bed  such  as  is  employed  in  pillar-blocks, 
and  sometimes  in  the  small  ends  of  connecting-rods  and  axle- 
boxes  :  after  having  made  the  bed  of  the  brass  to  the  same  shape 
as  the  seat  into  which  it  beds,  take  off  -^  inch  in  brasses  be- 
low 3  inches  bore,  or  ^  inch  in  brasses  above  that  size,  from 
the  crown  face  of  the  brass  pattern,  for  the  following  reasons  : 
The  casting  of  iron  or  of  brass  contracts,  in  cooling,  most  at  the 
sides,  and  the  above  is  to  compensate  for  this  contraction.  Fur- 
thermore, it  will  require  only  ^^  inch  to  be  cut  off  the  angles  to 
let  a  brass  (having  bed-angles  at  40°)  down  ^  inch  on  the  crown  ; 
whereas  it  will  require  ^  inch  taken  off  the  crown  face  to  let  the 
bed-angles  down  -^  inch.  A  strict  observance  of  this  rule  will,  in 
all  cases,  save  one  half  the  time  required  to  fit  such  brasses  to 
their  places.  In  brasses  whose  bed-angles  are  more  acute,  a 
greater  allowance  must  be  made. 

Patterns,  To  fit. — To  get  a  pattern  to  fit  closely  over  an  ir- 
regular casting  having  angles,  projections,  or  crooks  in  it  (such 
as  is  often  required  to  make  a  casting  with  which  to  patch  cylin- 
ders or  junctions  of  pipes),  take  a  piece  of  sheet-lead,  and  ham- 
mer it  lightly  with  a  round  pene-hammer,  closing  it  round  the 
casting  until  it  will,  by  stretching  where  it  is  requisite,  conform 


48  MECHANICS. 

strictly  to  the  sliape  of  the  surface,  however  irregular  it  may  be. 
The  moulder  can  then  cast  a  patch  from  the  sheet-lead,  making 
it  of  any  required  thickness. 

Patterns,  Wooden. — These  should  never  be  left  in  the  foun- 
dry, where  they  are  liable  to  warp  from  the  excessive  range  of 
temperature. 

Pening,  Setting  work  by. — The  operation  termed  "pening,"  is 
stretching  the  skin  on  one  side  of  work  to  alter  its  shape,  the 
principle  of  which  is  that,  by  striking  the  face  of  the  metal 
with  a  hammer,  the  face  of  the  metal  struck  stretches,  and 
tends  to  force  the  work  in  a  circular  form,  of  which  the 
part  receiving  the  effect  of  the  hammer  is  the  outside 
circle    or    diameter.      The    engraving    represents    a    piece    of 


a 


I.,.- at 

:r 

\,^-' 


a 


flat  iron,  which  would,  if  it  were  well  hammered  on  the  face, 
a  a  a,  with  the  pene  of  a  hammer,  alter  its  form  to  that  de- 
noted by  the  dotted  lines.  Or  let  the  rod,  (/,  shown  below  be 
attached  to  a  double  eye  at  one  end,  the  other  end  requiring  to 
come  fair  witli  the  double  eye,  6,  at  the  other  end  ;  then,  if  it  is 
pened  perpendicularly  on  the  face,  c,  of  the  rod,  the  stretched 
skin  will  throw  the  end  around  so  that  it  will  come  fair  with  the 


xa 


eye,  6.  Connecting-rod  straps  which  are  a  little  too  wide  for  the 
rod  ends  may  be  in  like  manner  closed  so  as  to  fit  by  pening  the 
outside  of  the  ciown  end,  or,  if  too  narrow,  may  be  opened  by 
pening  the  inside  of  the  crown  end  ;  l)ut  in  either  case,  the  ends 
of  the  strap  alter  most  in  consequence  of  their  lengths,  and  the 
strap  will  require  refitting  between  its  jaws. 

Pipes,  Gas  or  Steam,  Threads  used  in  screwing  : 
Inside  diameter.       Tlircads  Inside  diamctor.  TIni-ads 

per  inch.  I'er  inch. 

lU 

111 
8 

8 
8 
8 

_  insid(Mlianictersare 

only  estimated.  aVtlii'V  vary  for  jjiljes  of  different  strength,  the 


i 

27 

lA 

i 

18 

2 

1 

18 

2i 

\ 

14 

3 

\ 

14 

3i 

1 

u 

lU 

lA 

4 

Taper  of  threads 

A 

per  inch  f 

)f  1 

pngtli.  Thes 

MECHANICS. 


49 


thickness  varying  for  the  different  grades,  and  the  outside  diame- 
ter remaining  the  same. 

PiSTOX-RiNGS,  To  open. — Hammer  them  lightly  with  a  round 
pene-hammer  all  round  their  inside  faces. 

PiSTOX-RoD  Glands. — If  these  are  rather  tight,  the  piston-rod 
may  be  eased  bv  rubbing  the  gland  up  and  do%vn  the  rod,  and 
giy'ing  it  at  the 'same  time  a  revolving  motion  back  and  forth  at 
each  stroke.  Oil  must  be  supplied  to  the  rod  to  prevent  the 
gland  from  seizing  or  cutting.  A  gland  should  be  chucked  in  the 
lathe  by  the  tlange,  so  that  the  bore  and  outside  diameter  may  be 
turned  at  one  chucking,  and  thus  be  true  without  depending  upon 
the  truth  of  a  mandrel. 

Plaster,  Inserting  screws  in. — Make  a  large  hole  in  the  plas- 
ter and  drive  in  a  wooden  plug,  in  which  insert  the  screw.  The 
plug  may  be  first  split  and  a  groove  cut  in  each  half. 

Pullets,  Turning. — Pulleys  should  be  turned  either  on  a  man- 
drel, or  else  chucked  by  the  arms,  since  chucking  them  by  the 
rims  springs  them  out  of  true. 

PuNXHiNG  Metals. — The  same  elements  of  resistance  enter 
into  the  operation  of  punching  as  in  that  of  shearing.  In  short, 
a  punch  and  die  may  be  considered  as  shears  with  circular  blades. 
The  coefficient  of  pressure  in  punching,  for  any  given  area  of 
section,  will  be  exactly  that  for  shearing  the  same  area  of  sec- 


I 


P 

J 


iff 


SHKENKING  METAl-WORK. 


tion,  without  reference  to  the  thickness  of  the  material.  The 
measure  of  force  necessary  to  effect  the  various  punchings  readi- 
ly gives  the  value  of  the  resistance  to  shearing  in  cases  of  ordi- 
nary metals.  This  resistance,  per  square  foot,  is  determined  to 
be,  in  lbs. :  For  lead.  392,548  :  block-tin,  450.784  :  nl'ov  of  lead 
and  tin,   731,176  ;  zinc,   1,843,136 ;  copper,  4,083,941  ;  iron,   103,- 

ooo. 


50  MECHANICS. 


Reducing  the  Size  of  Work  by  shrinking  with  Fire 
AND  Water. — For  reducing  the  isize  of  wrought-iron  work,  the 
process  shown  in  the  following  engraving  may  be  employed. 
a  a  is  the  section  of  a  wrought-iron  square  box  or  tube,  which  is 
supposed  to  be  made  red  hot  and  placed  suddenly  in  the  water, 
B,  from  its  end,  C,  to  the  point  D  ;  the  result  is  that  the  metal  in 
the  water,  from  C  to  D,  contracts  or  shrinks  in  diameter,  and  com- 
presses the  hot  metal  immediately  above  the  water-line,  as  the 
small  cone  at  D  denotes.  If  then  the  box  or  tube  is  slowly  im- 
mersed in  the  water,  its  form,  when  cold,  will  be  as  in  the  right- 
hand  figure,  that  part  from  C  to  D  maintaining  its  original  size, 
and  the  remainder  being  smaller. 

It  must  then  be  reheated  and  suddenly  immersed  from  the  end, 
E,  nearly  to  D,  until  it  is  cold,  and  then  slowly  lowered  in  the 
water,  as  before,  which  will  contract  the  part  from  D  to  C,  mak- 
ing the  entire  length  parallel  but  smaller,  both  in  diameter  and 
bore,  than  before  it  was  thus  operated  upon. 

Rolls,  To  prevent  cinders  getting  between  the  necks  of. — Bore 
grooves  out  of  the  bearings,  1^  inches  wide  and  4  inch  deep  and 
1^  inches  apart,  put  them  at  an  angle  of  45°  with  the  face  of  the 
brass,  and  fill  up  said  grooves  with  soft  Babbitt  metal.  Then 
when  cinder  or  iron  gets  in,  it  will  travel  but  a  short  distance  be- 
fore it  reaches  the  soft  metal,  and  the  motion  of  the  roll  will  im- 
bed it  therein  so  that  it  can  not  protrude  and  scoi-e  the  neck,  as  it 
would  were  it  to  stick  in  the  brass. 

Rust,  To  remove,  from  small  hollow  castings. — Dip  in  dilute 
sulphuric  acid  1  part  commercial  acid  to  10  water  ;  wash  in  hot 
lime-water,  and  dry  in  the  tumbler  with  dry  sawdust. 

Sands  and  Facings  for  Castings. — For  castings,  such  as 
pipes  or  small  cylinders,  fine  sand,  termed  No.  1,  is  used,  the  fac- 
ing Ijcing  ])liinibago.  A  good  facing  for  loam  castings  is  made  of 
1  part  VVhitehead  sand  to  3  parts  fire-sand.  For  very  fine-faced 
castings,  Albany  or  Waterford  sand  is  unsurpassed.  Another 
facing  for  fine  castings  is  1  part  of  sea-coal  to  8  or  10  of  AUmny 
sand  :  for  heavy  castings,  however,  1  to  5  will  answer 

Saw'-Bladks,  Snuill. — Mechanics  who  want  small  gig  saw 
blades  will  find  that  the  steel  springs  of  which  hoopskirts  are 
formed  will  make;  caijital  ones  of  any  lengths;  and  they  vary  in 
width,  so  as  to  l)e  suitable  for  a  variety  of  uses. 

ScRKW-DuiVKKS,  The  advantage  of  long. — The  reason  that  a 
screw  is  driven  more  easily  into  wood  l)y  a  long  than  by  a  short 
Hcrew-driver,  is  that  the  tool  is  held  at  an  angle,  and  coiisc<|UiMitly 
the  long  Hcrew-di-ivcr  aiTonls  a  greater  leverage  than  a  short  one. 
If  both  were  st^ciircd  ?;(>  as  to  Ix-  at  right  angles  to  the  face  of  the 
screw,  there  would  ije  no  difference  in  their  action. 

SciiRWH,  To  prevent,  getting  tight  in  their  nuts. — Plane  a  key- 
way  or  groove  in  tin;  screw,  .<  in.  wide,  the  full  length  of  the 
scresv  and  down  to  the  bottom  of  the  tlireads  ;  and  it  will  act  like 
a  tap,  and  scrape  all  tlie  hard  gummy  grease  out  of  the.  nut,  and 
always  keej)  it  clean  and  working  free. 

ScuKW  and  Hrad  Holes  in  finisiikd  wouk,  'I'o  plug. — Ohio 
tlie  edge  of  tlie  plug  ;  |(Ut,   no  glut-   in  the  hole.     By  this  means 


MECHANICS. 


61 


the  surplus  glue  is  left  on  tlie  surface,  and  if  the  plug  does  not 
hit  the  screw,  it  will  seldom  show.  Set  the  heads  of  brads  well 
in,  then  pass  a  sponge  of  hot  water  over  them,  filling  the  holes 
with  hot  water.  This  brings  tlie  wood  more  to  its  natural  posi- 
tion, and  closes  by  degrees  over  the  head  of  the  plug.  When 
dry,  sandpaper  off  and  paint,  and  the  putty  will  not  hit  the  head 
of  the  brad. 

Screws,  Hints  about. — When  screws  are  driven  into  soft  wood 
and  subjected  to  considerable  strain,  they  are  likely  to  work 
loose  ;  in  such  case,  dip  tlie  screw  in  thick  glue  before  insertino-. 
When  buying  screws,  see  that  the  heads  are  round  and  well 
cut  ;  that  there  are  no  flaws  in  the  body  or  thread  part,  and  that 
they  have  gimlet  points.  A  screw  of  good  make  will  drive  into 
oak  as  easy  as  others  into  pine,  and  will  endure  having  twice  the 
force  brought  against  it.  W^hen  there  is  an  article  of  furniture 
to  be  hastily  repaired,  and  no  glue  is  handy,  insert  a  stick  a  little 
les.s  in  size  than  the  hole  for  the  screw  and  fill  the  rest  of  the 
cavity  with  powdered  resin  ;  heat  the  screw  sufficiently  to  meet 
the  resin  as  it  is  driven  in. 

Screw,  To  remove. — An  obdurate  screw  may  sometimes  be 
drawn  by  applying  a  piece  of  red-hot  iron  to  the  head  for  a 
minute  or  two,  and  immediately  using  the  screw-driver. 

Screw-Threads. — English  and  American  proportions  : 

TJie   Whitworth  Thread. 

Diameter  in  inches....  A     i     A     I     I'iT      *      I      f       I      1 

Threads  per  inch 21     30     18     16     14     12     11     10      9      8 

Diameter  in  inches li     IJ     If     1*     If     If     1^     2     2i    2i 

Threads  per  inch 7766554^4^44 

Diameter  in  inches...     2f     3      3i     34^     3|     4     4^-    4i    4f     5 
Threads  per  inch 3^    3i    3i    3i      3      3      2f     2|    2f    2f 

Diameter  in  inches.  ..  .  5 J    5^    5f     6 
Threads  per  inch 2f    2f    2i    2i 

Angle  of  threads  =  55°.  Depth  of  threads  =  pitch  of  screws. 
(One  sixth  of  the  depth  is  rounded  off  at  top  and  bottom.) 
Number  of  threads  to  the  inch  in  square  threads  =  4  number 
of  those  in  angular  threads. 

Standard  American  Proportions. 

Diameter  in  inches i     ^     I     tV     i     iir     I      f       I        1 

Threads  per  inch 20     18     16     14     13     12     11     10      9        8 

Diameter  in  inches If     IJ     If    U    If     If    If     2     2i    2f 

Threads  per  inch 7      7      6       6     5f5      5     4f4f4 

Diameter  in  inches 2i     3      3i    3i    3f     4     4f    4f    4f     5 

Threads  per  inch 4     3f    3i     3i      3      3     2f     2f    2f    2f 

Diameter  in  inches   .  .  .   5J    5f    Sf     6 
Threads  per  inch 2f    2|    2f    2i 

Angle  of  threads  =  60'.  Flat  surface  at  top  and  bottom  =  f  of 
the  pitch.     For  rough  bolts,  the  distance  between  parallel  sides 


52  MBCHANICS. 

of  bolt-head  and  nut  =  1^  diameters  of  bolt  +  ^  of  an  inch.  Thick- 
ness of  head  =  i  distance  between  parallel  sides.  Thickness  of 
nut  =  diameter  of  bolt.  In  finished  bolts,  thickness  of  head  = 
thickness  of  nut.  Distance  between  parallel  sides  of  a  bolt-head 
and  nut  and  thickness  of  nut  is  -j\-  of  an  inch  less  for  finished 
work  than  for  rough. 

Softening  Bright  Work  without  damaging  the  Finish. — 
Place  tlie  pieces  in  an  iron  box,  and  fill  in  the  interstices  with 
iron  turnings  ;  close  the  box,  lute  the  cracks  witli  fire-clay,  and 
heat  to  a  red,  allowing  the  box  to  cool  as  slowly  as  possible.  It 
is  a  good  plan  to  let  the  furnace-fires  go  out  and  leave  the  box  in 
the  furnace  to  cool. 

Solder,  To  flow. — Ordinary  solder,  2  parts  tin  and  1  part  lead, 
will  flow  smoothly  on  tin  when  dipped  by  previously  putting  sal- 
ammoniac  on  the  surface  to  be  tinned. 

Spirit-Leyel,  Accuracy  of  the. — The  best  length  of  bubble 
depends  on  the  length  or  curvature  of  the  tube,  a  short  bubble 
being  required  for  u  tube  with  a  small  radius  of  curvature,  and 
increasing  regularly  in  proportion  with  the  increase  of  the  radius 
of  curvature. 

Springs,  Steel. — To  find  elasticity  of  a  given  steel-plate  spring: 
Breadth  of  plate  in  inches  multiplied  by  cube  of  the  thickness  in 
V,;  in.,  and  by  number  of  plates.  Divide  cube  of  span  in  inches  by 
l)roduct  so  found,  and  multiply  by  l.GO.  Result,  equal  elasticity 
in  -^  in.  per  ton  of  load.  To  find  span  due  to  a  given  eladicity  and 
number  and  size  of  plate  :  Multiply  elasticity  in  sixteenths  per  ton 
by  breadth  ol  plate  in  inches,  and  divide  by  cube  of  the  thickness 
in  inches,  and  by  number  of  plates  ;  divide  by  1.G6,  and  find 
cube-root  of  quotient.  Result,  e(iual  span  in  inches.  To  find  num- 
ber of  plates  due  to  a  given  elasticiti/,  span,  and  size  of  jdates  : 
Multii)ly  the  cube  of  the  span  iu  inches  by  1.G6.  Multiply  the 
elasticity  in  sixteenths  by  the  breadth  of  the  plate  in  inches,  and 
by  the  cube  of  the  thickness  in  sixteenths  ;  divide  the  former 
])roduct  by  the  latter.  The  (juotient  is  tlie  number  of  plates. 
To  find  the  working  xtnngth  of  k  given  steel-plate  spring  :  Mul- 
tiply the  breadth  of  plate  in  inches  by  the  square  of  the  thick- 
ness in  sixteenths,  and  by  the  number  of  plates.  Multiply  also 
the  working  span  in  inches  by  11.:}  ;  dividt*  the  former  product 
by  the  latter.  Result,  equal  workiug  strength  in  tons  burden. 
To  find  sptin  due  to  a  ginrn.  Ktn  ngtii  and  nunibrr  and  xize  of  plate  : 
Multiply  tlie  breadth  of  ])late  in  inches  by  the  square  of  the 
tiiickness  in  sixteenths,  and  liy  the  nm.iber  of  ])latea  ;  multiply 
also  tlie  strengtli  in  tons  by  11.3  ;  divide  the  former  prcaict  by 
the  latter.  Result,  e(|ual  working  span  in  inche.s.  To  find  the 
numher  of  pbttes  due  to  a  girc/i  ntnngtli,  sp  •  and  size  of  plate  : 
M  ''iply  till'  strength  in  tons  by  sjjan  in  h  .'S,  and  (livide  l)y 
1  •  muliiply  also  the  ijrcadlh  of  jdatt;  in  iii.-.i'S  by  tlu;  scpiaro 

of  tlie  thickiirss  in  sixteeiitliB  ;  divide  the  former  product  by  the 
latter.  |{esult,  ecpial  nuiiilier  of  jilates.  The  span  is  that  due 
to  tlie  form  of  the  spring  loaded.  Extra  thick  jilates  must  be  re- 
placed by  an  equivalent  number  of  plates  of  the  ruling  tliickness 


MECHANICS.  53 

before  applying  the  rule.  To  find  this,  multiply  the  number  of 
extra  plates  by  the  square  of  their  thickness,  and  divide  by  the 
square  of  the  rulins:  thickness  ;  conversely,  tlie  number  of  plates 
of  the  ruling  thickness  to  be  removed  for  a  given  number  of 
extra  plates  may  be  found  in  the  same  way 

Springs,  To  reduce  elasticity  of. — A  well-tempered  bar-spring 
will  lose  much  of  its  elastic  strength  by  filing  off  a  very  thin 
scale  from  the  surface. 

Steel,  Advantage  of  holes  drilled  iu. — The  advantage  in 
tensile  strength,  when  holes  are  drilled  in  steel  rather  than 
punched,  is  25.5  per  cent. 

Steel,  Cast,  To  weld. — Apply  powdered  borax  to  the  weld 
while  heating  it  in  the  fire.  If  the  steel  is  made  too  hot,  it  will 
crack  during  the  hammering  process. 

Steel,  Cast,  Welding  compound  for. — Mix  i  lb.  saltpetre  aud 
I  lb.  oil  of  vitriol  in  2  gallons  hard  water  ;  heat  the  steel  to  a 
blood  red,  and  coo!  in  the  mixture  before  welding.  Then  reheat, 
in  sand,  and  weld  by  hammering  as  usual. 

Steel,  Fire  for  tempering. — In  hardening  and  tempering  steel, 
a  clean  charcoal,  anthracite,  or  coked  bituminous  coal  fire  is  re- 
quired ;  such  as  is  fit  for  taking  a  forging  heat  on  iron  is  entirely 
uufit  for  hardening  purposes.  The  sulphur  contained  in  the 
coal  combines  with  the  steel  to  form  sulphuret  of  iron,  and  ruins 
its  texture. 

Steel,  Tempering. — The  colors  shown  at  different  temperatures 
Fahr.  are  as  follows:  Very  pale  yellowish,  430"  ;  pale  straw, 
450°  ;  vellow,  470°  ;  brown,  490°  ;  mottled  brown,  510°  ;  purple, 
530°  ;  bright  blue,  550°  ;  blue,  560°  ;  dark  blue,  600°. 

Steel,  To  demagnetize. — (1)  Heat  it  to  a  red  heat,  and  allow  it 
to  cool  slowly.  (2)  Place  the  steel  on  a  magnet,  with  the  same 
poles  touching  the  same  poles  of  the  magnet,  and  repeat  tlie 
operation  tili  total  demagnetization  has  taken  place. 

Steel,  To  remove  blue  color  from. — (1)  Use  1  part  oil  of  vitriol 
to  10  parts  water.  (2)  Dip  the  articles  in  a  strong  solution  of 
cyanide  of  potassium  nearly  boiling.  (3)  Dip  the  article  in  hy- 
drochloric acid,  and  quickly  rinse  in  clean  water. 

Tempering  steel  for  drilling  rock.— Be  careful  not  to  overheat 
it  in  hardening  and  forging,  and  quench  in  salt  water,  drawing  to 
a  brown  color. 

Tempering,  The  color-tests  for.— Says  Mr.  J.  Richards  :  "  Pro- 
cure eight  pieces  of  cast-steel,  about  2  in.  long  by  1  in.  wide, 
and  f  of  an  inch  thick  ;  heat  them  to  a  high  red  heat,  and  drop 
them  into  a  salt-bath.  Leave  one  without  tempering,  to  show 
the  white  shade  of  extreme  hardness,  and  grind  off  and  polish 
one  side  of  each  of  the  remaining  seven  pieces.  Then  give  them  to 
an  experienced  tool-maker  to  be  drawn  to  seven  various  shades  of 
temper,  ranging  from  the  white  piece  to  the  dark  blue  color  of 
soft  steel.  On'the  backs  of  these  pieces  paste  labels,  describing 
the  technical  name  of  the  shades  and  the  general  uses  to  which 
tools  of  corresponding  liardn(>ss  are  adajited.     This  will  form  an 


54  MECHANICS. 

interesting  collection  of  specimens,  and  accustom  the  fye  to  the 
various  tints,  whicli  will,  after  some  experience,  be  instantly  re- 
cognized when  seen  separately." 

Tinning  small  castings. — Clean,  and  boil  them  with  scraps  of 
block-tin  in  a  solution  of  cream  of  tartar. 

Water-wheel,  Steps  for. — No  step  or  foot-bearing  of  metal  is 
equal  to  one  of  good  oak  or  rock-maple. 

Zinc,  Stamping. — In  stam]iing  sheet-zinc  in  dies,  much  waste 
occurs  from  the  small  difEerence  between  the  melting-point  and 
the  temperature  at  which  sheet-zinc  should  be  stamped  to  get  the 
best  effect.  To  obviate  this  waste,  heat  the  zinc  by  dipping  in 
oil  at  the  proper  temperature. 


ENGINEERING. 


TESTIXG  THE   STRENGTH   OF  MATERIALS 


BY    PROF.    R.    H.    THURSTOX. 

The  engraving  whicli  accompanies  this  article  illustrates  a 
very  convenient,  yet  quite  accurate,  method  of  determining  the 
strength  of  materials,  whicli  has  been  devised  by  the  writer. 
The  test-piece  is  made  by  catting,  from  the  piece  of  metal 
of  which  the  strength  is  to  be  determined,  a  piece  about  3  in. 


TESTING    METAXS. 

long  and  1  in.  square.  At  the  middle  of  its  length,  a  part  is 
turned  cylindrical  in  form  and  1  in.  long,  with  a  diameter  of  +  in. 
if  of  iron,  or  'i  in.  if  the  metal  is  steel.  The  test-piece  thus  made 
is  fastened  in  the  vise,  as  shown  in  the  engraving,  and  a  long- 
handled  wrench  is  attached  to  the  projecting  head.     A  spring- 


OO  SC^'GINEEKING. 

balance  is  secured  to  the  end  of  this  wrench,  and  the  experimen- 
ter twists  off  the  head  by  pulling  on  this  sprinj.r-balauce,  as  seen 
in  the  illustration.  The" balance  should  be  capable  of  indicating 
weights  of  fifty  pounas  or  more.  By  simply  painting  the  scale 
of  the  balance  with  white-lead,  or  smearing  it  with  tallow,  and 
by  springing  the  pointer  so  that  it  will  touch  the  surface,  a  re- 
cording apparatus  may  be  improvised  which  will  indicate  the 
maximum  strain  reached  during  the  test. 

In  testing,  the  experimenter  i)ulls  steadily  on  the  balance,  gra- 
dually increasing  the  force  exerted,  and  watching  carefully,  and 
noting  the  action  of,  the  test-piece  and  the  balance,  until  fracture 
occurs.  A  resistance,  which  is  apparently  quite  unyielding,  is 
ft'lt  at  first  ;  this  is  suddenly  observed  to  be  succeeded  by  a  grad- 
ually increasing  distortion  of  the  test-piece,  accompanied  by  an 
increasing  resistance,  up  to  the  point  of  the  commencement  of 
rupture.  From  the  latter  point,  the  resistance  becomes  less  and 
less,  finally  ceasing  when  the  test-piece  fails  apart.  By  conduct- 
ing the  operation  very  carefirily,  and  noting  resistances  very  accu- 
rately, all  of  the  following  important  points  may  be  determined  : 

The  limit  of  elasticity  is  the  point  at  which  the  yielding  first 
commences.  Note  the  reading  of  the  balance  at  this  point  and 
the  angle  of  distortion.  The  last  quantity  is  the  measure  of  the 
stiffness  of  the  metal.  The  most  rigid  pieces  are,  of  course,  those 
which  yield  the  least  with  a  given  amount  of  force.  After  the 
piece  has  been  twisted  so  far  as  to  have  taken  a  set,  the  pull  may 
be  relaxed,  and  the  distance  which  the  piece  springs  back  is  to  be 
noted.  The  elaKticity  of  the  metal  is  measured  by  this  recoil. 
The  ductility  of  the  metal  is  measured  by  the  extent  of  yielding 
which  occurs  before  fracture  takes  place.  The  rexiliencc  of  the 
metal — which  is  the  name  given  its  power  of  resisting  shock — is 
very  closely  proportioned  to  its  strength  multiplied  by  its  ductili- 
ty. Therefore,  to  ascertain  what  blow  would  be  resisted  by  it 
without  its  taking  a  set,  it  is  simidy  necessary  to  multij)ly  the  re- 
sistance at  the  limit  of  elasticity  by  the  amount  of  distortion  ob- 
served within  the  elastic  limit.  The  hom<>(j(  neity  of  the  material 
is  indicated  by  the  smoothness  and  regularity  with  which  the 
metal  changes  in  its  power  of  resistance  as  the  deformation  pro- 
gresses. 

In  making  such  a  series  of  experiments,  it  is  usually  found 
be.st  to  first  select  a  well-known  and  good  brand  of  the  kind  of 
metal  which  it  is  i)roposed  to  test,  and,  by  a  set  of  exi)erinu'iits 
on  test-pieces  cut  from  it,  to  determine  what,  with  the  particular 
arrangement  of  aj^paratus  chosen,  is  the  resistance  registered  by 
the  l)alance,  and  what  are  the  characteristics  of  the  metal  as 
shown  by  the  method  here  described.  By  a  careful  comi)arison 
of  the  behavior  of  tlie  metal  of  which  the  <iuality  is  desired  to  be 
learned  with  tliis  .standard  set  of  satnides,  tlie  operator  soon 
learns  to  judge  cpiickly  and  accurately  of  the  value  of  his  mate- 
rial for  any  specified  purpose. 

Ah  the  tensile  strength  of  a  metal  is  usually  very  closely  pro- 
IK)rtional  to  tlie  resistance  to  torsion,  this  also  enables  a  very  sa- 
tisfactory deteriuinalion  of  the  value  of  the  metJil  for  resisting 
tension  to  be  obtaini'd.  In  tht^  autographic  recording  nuichine, 
built  by  the  Meclianical    Laboratory  of  the  Stevens  Institute  of 


ENGINEERING.  57 

Technolooy,  these  results  are  permanently  inscribed  upon  a  sheet 
of  profile-paper,  the  pencil  of  the  ajiparatus  writing  a  diagram  or 
curve  which  is  a  record  of  all  the  circumstances  modifying  the  re- 
sisting power  of  the  metal  while  under  test.  The  rule  being  ap- 
plied, the  torsional,  and  approximately  the  tensile,  resistance  is 
read  off  at  a  glance,  and  tlie  position  of  the  elastic  limit,  the  ho- 
mogeneousness,  the  elasticity,  the  stiffness,  the  ductility,  the 
resilience,  are  all  found  fully  indicated  by  the  diagram,  and  can 
be,  at  any  subsequent  period,  shown  by  means  of  this  automati- 
cally produced  record.  On  these  records,  the  tensile  resistance  is 
louud  to  be  about  25,000  pounds  per  square  inch  for  each  inch  in 
height  of  the  diagram. 

The  peculiar  method  of  fracture  here  adopted  is  well  adapted 
to  exhibit  in  the  surfaces  of  the  break  any  peculiarity  of  the 
metal.  If  homogeneous,  it  will  show  a  uniform  and  characteris- 
tic fracture  ;  if  seamy,  it  will  be  found  to  have  cracks  extending 
spirally  around  it  ;  if  of  cast-iron,  the  character  of  the  ruptured 
surfaces  will  at  once  reveal  to  the  experienced  eye  whether  the 
metal  is  fine  or  coarse  grained,  a  dark  foundry  or  a  light  forge 
iron,  and  whether  of  close  or  open  texture.  If  of  steel,  it  will  be 
readily  seen  whether  it  is  "  high"  or  "  low,"  whether  tool  steel 
or  of  the  machinery  grade.  Whatever  the  character  of  the  ma- 
terial, the  eye,  experienced  in  such  kinds  of  observation,  will  at 
once  detect  it,  while  the  record  of  the  experiment,  or  the  "  strain- 
diagram,"  will  give  the  exact  data  of  resistances,  and  will  be  a 
check  upon  the  judgment  thus  formed. 


THE   ENGINE   AND   ITS   APPENDAGES. 

COXDENSERS,  Gain  from  the  application  of,  to  steam-engines. — 
In  the  early  days  of  the  steam-engine,  very  low  pressure  was  or- 
dinarily employed  for  engines  with  condensers,  while,  on  the  con- 
trary, what  was  considered  a  very  high  pressure  was  adopted  for 
engines  that  exhausted  into  the  atmosphere.  Hence  arose  the 
terms  high  and  low  pressure  engines,  the  former  being  engines 
with,  and  the  latter  without,  condensers.  At  present,  a  high 
pressure  of  steam  is  ordinarily  carried  in  both  kinds  of  engines, 
so  that  the  terms  do  not  describe  the  two  varieties  as  well  as 
formerly.  Many  engineers  prefer  to  class  engines  as  condensing 
and  non-condensing,  rather  than  as  high  and  low  pressure  ;  and 
this  classification  is  generally  considered  the  more  correct  of  the 
two.  One  who  regards  economy  puts  in  a  condensing  engine, 
if  he  has  plenty  of  water  in  the  locality  ;  and  many  old  non-con- 
densing engines  are  being  fitted  with  condensers,  under  the  more 
enlightened  engineering  practice  of  the  present  time. 

It  may  be  fairly  assumed  that  a  non-condensing  engine  has,  on 
an  average,  at  least  2  lbs.  per  square  inch  back  pressure  on  the 
piston.     By  the  application  of  a  condenser,  it  might  be  expected 


58  Ei«fGINEERi:NG. 


tliat  there  would  be  a  negative  pressure  of  10  lbs.  per-  sq.  inch  on 
the  back  of  the  piston,  so  that  the  piston  pressure  would  be  in- 
creased bj  12  lbs.  In  this  assumption,  an  allowance  is  made  for 
the  power  required  to  work  the  air-pump,  and  the  engine  is  sup- 
posed to  be  at  least  7o  horse-power.  For  an  engine  smaller  than 
this,  it  would  be  better  to  allow  an  increase  in  the  positive  pressure 
of  not  more  than  10  lbs.  per  square  inch.  As  the  condenser,  by 
decreasing  the  back  pressure  on  the  piston,  adds  just  as  much  to 
the  positive  pressure,  it  is  plain  that  a  lower  pressure  of  steam 
can  be  used,  or  the  steam  may  be  cut  off  at  an  earlier  point  of  the 
stroke.  The  gain  in  either  case  can  be  a})])roximately  calculated. 
If  the  gain  in  positive  pressure  produced  by  the  reduction  in 
back  pressure  be  multiplied  by  100,  and  divided  by  the  mean  ef- 
fective pressure  on  the  piston,  it  will  give  the  percentage  of  gain 
in  pressure  due  to  the  condenser. 

Thus,  if  the  mean  effective  pressure  on  the  piston  is  30  lbs.  per 
square  inch,  the  gain  in  pressure  will  be  100  times  12,  or  1200, 
divided  l)y  30,  which  is  40  per  cent.  Now  suppose  that  before 
the  condenser  was  attached,  tiie  steam  was  cut  off  in  the  cylin- 
der at  half  stroke  ;  under  the  new  conditions  the  required  mean 
effective  pressure  can  be  obtained  with  a  lower  boiler  pressure 
than  before.  Before  the  condenser  was  in  use,  it  would  be  ne- 
cessary to  maintain  a  pressure  in  the  boiler  of  about  58  lbs.  per 
square  inch  by  gauge,  to  give  a  mean  effective  pressure  of  30  lbs. 
on  the  piston  ;  while  with  an  increase  of  12  lbs.  in  the  effective 
pressure,  by  the  application  of  the  condenser,  a  boiler  pressure  of 
about  39  lbs.  would  suffice.  As  the  weight  of  steam  \>eT  cubic 
foot  at  58  lbs.  pressure  is  0.17481  lbs.,  and  only  0.132  lbs.  at  3i» 
lbs.  pressure,  there  would  be  a  saving  of  about  24.5  jier  cent  in 
the  amount  of  steam  reijuired  to  run  the  engine.  Instead  of  re- 
ducing the  steam  pressure  after  attaching  a  condenser  to  an  en- 
gine, it  might  be  better  to  maintain  the  same  pressure  in  the 
boiler,  and  cut  off  the  steam  at  an  earlier  ])art  of  the  stroke.  In 
the  case  under  consideration,  tlie  increase  in  12  lbs.  of  the  effec- 
tive pressure  would  permit  of  closing  tlie  steam  port  a  little  be- 
fore the  completion  of  one  third  of  the  stroke  ;  and  supposing 
tliat  the  clearance  space  in  the  cylinder  amounts  to  5  i>er  cent  of 
the  capacity  of  till- (-ylindcr,  the  (juantifics  of  steam  recpiiri'd  ])er 
stroke,  before  and  after  tlie  use  of  tlie  condenser,  would  be  in  the 
ratio  of  550  to  303,  so  that  there  would  be  a  saving  of  34  per 
cent. 

The  example  given  represents  a  case  in  ordinary  practice.  By 
varying  the  data,  of  rour.se  a  greater  or  less  amount  of  saving 
would  re.suh  ;  but  with  an  engine  in  good  condition,  it  is  gene- 
rally saf(^  to  estimate  that  a  saving  from  20  to  25  ])er  cent  of  the 
amount  of  steam  usc-d,  and,  coiise(iuently,  of  the  consumption  of 
coal,  will  be  realized  by  tlu^  application  of  a  condenser.  Indeed, 
it  is  not  unusual  for  manufacturers  to  guarantt^e  this  amount  of 
saving    in  converting  a  non-condensing  into  a  condensing  engine. 

B. 

f^OTTON  Machinkuy,  Power  required  Id  drive. — The  following 
are  fair  a|)proxi mate  rules  :  Cotton  openers,  I  liorse-power  per 
l(MH)  lbs.  cotton  delivered.  Cotton  jiickers,  3  liorse-|)ower  per 
1000  lbs.   <:otton  delivered.     Cotton  canis,  v'n  horse  ])ower  per  lb. 


ENGIXEERI]S'G.  59 

cotton  delivered  per  day,  and,  at  125  revolutions  per  minute,  0.13|- 
liorse-power.  Cotton  cards,  best  practice,  -^  horse-power  per 
revolution  per  minute.  Railway  heads,  breakers,  1  horse-power 
per  each  10  yards  per  miuute.  Railway  heads,  finishers,  0.001 
horse-power  "per  revolution  per  minnte.  Drawiug-frames,  0.003 
horse-power  per  revolution  per  minute.  Spindles,  0.005  horse- 
power per  spindle  per  1000  revolutions.  Damp  weather  adds 
10  or  13  per  cent  ;  methods  of  banding  may  make  equally  great 
variations.  Looms  require  from  0.1  to  0.35  horse-power  each. 
Pickers  take  4  to  6  horse-power.  Cloth  shears  from  3  to  4  horse- 
power. 

Cylinders,  Balancing  heavy. — The  cylinder,  being  keyed  upon 
its  axle  as  it  is  intended  to  run,  is  lifted  by  a  tackle  or  crane,  and 
lowered  so  that  each  of  its  journals  rests  upon  a  stout  steel 
straight-edge  placed  so  that  its  upper  surface  is  exactly  level  and 
parallel  with  its  fellow.  These  straight-edges  should  not  only  be 
so  rigid  as  to  suffer  no  sensible  deflection  from  the  weight  of  the 
cylinder,  but  they  should  be  very  hard  and  smooth,  and  great 
care  should  be  taken  to  keep  them  free  from  indentations.  The 
journals  of  the  cylinder  must  also  be  round  and  polished.  The 
cylinder  can  now  be  loaded  on  its  lighter  side,  or  vice  versa,  until 
it  will  remain  perfectly  motionless  when  stopped  in  any  part  of 
its  revolution. 

Cylinders,  Locomotive,  Placing  in  line. — To  test  the  ac- 
curacy of  the  work  after  the  bed-piece  has  been  permanently  fixed 
to  the  boiler,  clamp  a  cylinder  to  its  seat  on  the  bed-piece,  and  fit 
a  wooden  cross  (with  a  pin-hole  through  its  centre)  to  the  bore  of 
the  cylinder  at  its  front  end  ;  then  pass  a  fine  strong  line  through 
the  hole,  and  extend  it  back  so  that  it  shall  occupy  a  point  ex- 
actly at  the  intersection  of  the  central  line  of  the  driver-axle 
with  the  vertical  plane  of  motion  of  the  centre  of  the  crank-pin 
and  connecting-rod  ;  draw  the  line  taut  and  fasten  it  in  this  posi- 
tion ;  then  apply  callipers  or  a  gauge  at  the  rear  end  of  the  cylin- 
der, between  the  surface  of  the  bore  and  the  line,  above  and  be- 
low and  right  and  left  of  the  line  ;  and  if  the  cylinder  is  in  line, 
the  four  distances  will  of  course  be  exactly  the  same.  It  is  essen- 
tial that  the  tAvo  horizontal  distances  should  coincide  exactly,  and 
that  the  central  lines  of  the  two  cylinders  of  a  locomotive  should 
be  exactly  parallel  with  each  other,  but  for  obvious  reasons  the 
exact  coincidence  of  the  two  vertical  distances  is  not  essential  to 
the  efficiency  or  correct  Avorking  of  the  engine. 

Instead  of  a  Avooden  cross,  as  aboA'e  mentioned,  a  more  conve- 
nient instrument,  made  of  metal,  may  be  proA^ided,  consisting  of 
four  bevel  gears.  A,  which  serve  also  as  nuts,  which  work  tour 
sockets,  B,  with  threads  cut  on  their  inner  ends,  all  neatly  fitted 
to  a  light  casting,  E,  haA'ing  a  fine  central  hole  for  the  line,  as 
shown.  A  central  gear,  C,  Avorks  the  four  gears,  of  course  all  at 
the  same  time.  SeA-eral  sets  of  steel  rods,  D,  may  be  provided  if 
necessary,  of  different  lengths,  and  thus  render  the  instrument 
universal  in  its  application,  each  set  of  rods  serving  for  cylinders 
varying  tAVO  inches,  more  or  less,  in  the  diameters  of  their  bores. 

To  determine  whether  a  cylinder  of  an  old  engine  is  in  line : 
Remove  the  front  head  of  the  cylinder,  the  piston,  the  stuffing- 


LiO 


KNGINKKKIXG. 


box  gland,  and  the  tro^s-head  ;  apply  the  cross  and  line,  as  above 
directed,  extendiufj  the  line  through  the  piston-rod  hole  in  the 
rear  head  to  a  point  exactly  central  with  the  crank-pin  when  the 
crank  is  at  its  dead  point  ;  draw  tlie  line  taut,  and,  it  the  cylinder 


rl.ACINO   LOCOMOTIVE   CVLlNXJEItS    IN    l.l.NE. 

is  correctly  in  range,  the  line  will  occupy  a  central  position  in  the 
stuffing-box,  which  maybe  determined  as  before  directed.  If  the 
cross-head  guides  are  parallel  with  the  line,  both  vertically  and 
laterally,  they  are  also  correct. 

C'VLIXDKUS,  Thick. — Thick  cylinders  are  those  in  which  the 
thickness  is  considerable  in  comjjarison  with  the  internal  dianu'- 
ter.  To  find  tlu;  bursting  ])ressure  of  a  thick  cylinder,  take  the  j)ro- 
ductof  (1)  tlie  trnacityof  tin;  nuiterial  in  ixjuihIs  per  scjuare  inch, 
and  (2)  tli(!  tliickness  of  the  cylinder  in  indies,  and  divide  the  ])ro- 
duct  Ity  th<^  sum  of  (1)  the  thickness  in  inches,  and  (2)  the  internal 
radius  of  the  cylinder  in  inclu-s.  Tints  u  cylin<ler  with  an  internal 
radius  of  4  indies,  and  a  thickness  of  5  iiu-hes,  if  made  of  cast- 
iron  having  a  tensile  strength  of  Ki, ()()()  lbs.  ])er  8(juare  inch,  lias 
a  biir.-tin;^  jjre.ssure  of  HHHH.'J  lbs.,  Ibis  being  the  product  of 
10,000  and  5,  divided  by  tlie  sum  of  4  and  5.  B. 

FInoinkku,  Duties  of  the. — The  ordinary  daily  duties  of  an  en- 
gineer are  as  follows  :  On  coming  in  \]ir  morning,  he  sliould  first 
ascertain  the  amount  of  water  in  tin;  l>oiler  ;  and,  if  tbat  is  all 
right,  j)roceed  to  raisi-  steam,  eifber  cleaning  and  si)rea(ling  tlie 


ENGINEERING.  61 

fire,  if  it  has  been  banked,  or  making  it  up,  if  it  has  been  hauled. 
A  fire  is  kindled  in  the  boiler  in  essentially  the  same  manner  as 
in  a  stove,  wood  and  sliaviugs  first  being  ignited,  and  then  cover- 
ed with  coal.  In  starting  the  fire,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  cover  the 
back  of  the  grate  with  coal,  to  prevent  the  passage  of  cold  air 
through  the  tubes.  In  getting  up  steam,  the  safety-valve  should 
be  raised  a  little,  to  permit  the  escape  of  air  from  the  boiler. 
Having  got  the  fire  under  way,  the  engineer  should  wipe  off  the 
engine,  fill  the  oil-cups,  and  make  any  adjustments  that  may  be 
necessary,  such  as  tightening  keys  and  screwing  up  joints  or 
glands  of  stuffing-boxes,  and  shotild  see  that  the  cylinder-cocks 
are  open.  When  steam  is  raised,  he  shotild  open  the  stop-valve 
and  start  the  engine  ;  after  which,  if  a  part  of  his  duty  is  to  at- 
tend to  the  shafting,  he  should  examine  and  oil  it.  Then  he 
should  get  out  the  ashes,  provide  a  supply  of  coal,  and  screen  it, 
if  necessary,  and  proceed  to  make  everything  tidy  around  the  en- 
gine and  boiler.  Throughout  the  daj',  he  should  keep  a  watchful 
eye  on  the  fire,  the  water,  the  steam,  and  the  engine.  In  manag- 
ing the  fire,  care  should  be  taken  to  have  the  furnace-door  open 
as  little  as  possible  ;  and,  if  steam  is  formed  too  rapidly,  the  fire 
should  be  regulated  by  closing  the  damper  and  ash-pit  doors.  In 
regulating  the  height  of  the  water,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  keep  a 
steady  feed,  and  maintain  the  height  constant.  If  it  is  found 
that  the  water  is  falling,  the  engineer  should  discover  whether  it 
is  caused  by  a  leak,  or  by  the  refusal  of  the  pump  to  work.  He 
can  tell  whether  the  pump  is  working  by  the  sound  of  the  check- 
valve  falling  after  each  stroke,  or  by  feeling  the  feed-pipe  or 
check-valve.  A  pump  will  not  feed  when  the  temperature  of  the 
water  is  very  high,  unless  it  is  specially  adapted  for  pumping  hot 
water  ;  and  if  it  refuses  to  work  from  this  cause,  the  temperature 
of  the  water  should  be  reduced.  A  pump  will  not  deliver  water 
if  the  proper  valves  are  not  opened,  if  its  passages  are  choked,  or 
if  its  packing  is  defective.  It  would  be  necessary  to  examine  the 
pump  at  once,  and  endeavor  to  discover  and  remedy  the  difficulty. 
If  the  water  falls  in  the  boiler  on  account  of  a  leak,  it  can  some- 
times be  temporarily  repaired  with  a  plug,  or  the  pump  can  be 
run  faster,  so  as  to  keep  up  the  water  until  stopping-time.  If 
this  is  not  possible,  the  fire  should  be  hauled,  and  the  engine  al- 
lowed to  ran  as  long  as  there  is  sufficient  steam -pressure.  In  case 
the  engineer  finds  that  the  pump  is  not  feeding,  and  he  has  a  fair 
supply  of  water  in  the  boiler,  he  should  at  once  examine  the  pump, 
and  endeavor  to  remedy  the  trouble  without  stopping  the  engine. 
If  he  does  not  succeed,  however,  before  the  water  falls  below  the 
level  of  the  lowest  gauge-cock,  he  should  haul  the  fire,  and  let  the 
engine  run  as  long  as  the  steam-pressure  is  sufficient.  If  he  has 
been  called  away  from  the  boiler,  and  on  his  return  finds  that  the 
water  is  below  the  level  of  the  lower  gauge-cock,  he  should  imme- 
diately ascertain  the  steam-pressure,  and  if  it  is  rising  rapidly  he 
should  haul  the  fire  at  once.  If  the  steam-pressure  is  about  the 
same  as  usual,  he  should  examine  the  pump  ;  and  if  it  is  not  de- 
livering water,  he  should  haul  the  fire.  If  the  pump  is  feeding, 
he  may  run  it  faster,  watching  the  steam-gauge  carefully.  If 
the  pressure  does  not  fall,  he  should  stop  the  pump  and  haul  the 
fire.   In  any  case  the  engine  should  not  be  stopped  until  the  steam- 


62  ENGINEERING. 


]iressiire  is  considerably  reduced.  The  engineer  should  ho  very 
l):irticular,  on  findhig  the  water  low,  to  examine  the  steam-gauge 
at  once  ;  and  if  the  pressure  is  unusually  high,  he  should  haul 
the  fire  without  delay. 

A  boiler  foams  or  primes  either  because  it  has  insufficient 
steam  room,  or  on  account  of  dirt  or  grease  in  the  boiler  or  the 
feed-water.  The  trouble  is  often  experienced  with  new  boilers, 
and  disappears  w'hen  they  become  clean.  Priming  is  dangerous, 
if  much  water  is  carried  over  with  the  steam,  as  it  is  difficult  to 
maintain  the  water-level  constant,  and  the  engine  is  liable  to  be 
broken  by  the  water  in  the  cylinders.  If  the  trouble  is  caused 
by  insufficient  steam-room,  it  can  sometimes  be  partially  over- 
come \)y  increasing  the  steam  pressure,  and  throttling  it  down  to 
the  ordinary  working  pressure  in  the  cylinder  ;  but  the  only  ef- 
fectual way  is  to  provide  more  steam-room.  If  the  priming  is 
due  to  dirt  or  grease  in  the  boiler,  the  engineer  should  blow  off 
frequently,  and  clean  the  boiler  every  few  days.  In  lilowing  off, 
it  is  well  to  raise  the  water-level  in  the  boiler  by  putting  on  a 
strong  feed,  and  then  blow  down  below  the  level  that  is  ordi- 
narily maintained.  It  is  very  often  the  case  that  the  water-level 
is  higher  when  the  engine  is  running  than  it  is  when  none  of 
the  steam  is  being  used.  The  engineer  should  ascertain  how 
much  higher  the  water  rises  in  such  a  case,  so  as  to  have  a  ])ro- 
per  quantity  of  water  when  the  engine  is  stopped.  B. 

Engine  for  a  row-boat. — For  an  ordinary  Wliitiliull  row-boat, 
18  feet  long,  to  run  at  a  si)eed  of  8  miles  per  hour,  the  engiiu> 
should  have  two  cylinders,  2  in.  diamt^t(!r  and  8  in.  stroke  ;  tubular 
boiler,  24  to  2S  iu'-h(;s  iu  diameter,  4  feet  high  ;  propeller,  22  to 
24  inches  in  diameter,  with  ',i  feet  pitch. 


Engines  and  Boii-eus,  Small. — By  the  aid  of  the  accompany- 
ing table,  the  effective  horse-power  (that  available^  for  useful 
work)  of  small  engines  can  b(!  approximately  determined.  The 
tal)le  is  designed  for  non-cond(!nsing  engines,  with  cylinders  uj) 
U)  G  inches  in  diiuneter,  and  for  piston-s|)eeds  u])  to  400  feet  a  mi- 
nute ;  the  connection  of  the  engine  witli  tlie  boiler  being  sup- 
posed to  be  tolerably  direct,  tlu^  ]>ortsand  pipes  heing  of  siitli<'ient 
sizes,  and  tlie  steam-valve  closing  wiien  tiie  piston  has  nuide 
three  <|uarter3  of  the  stroke.  As  the  tabh;  is  designed  for  avcrnf/c 
conditions,  it  is  evident  that  it  wiil  give  rc^sult.s  that  are  too  large 
in  som<!  casf'H,  and  too  small  in  othei's. 

/.  —  To  find  the  linrKC-ixxncr  of  itii  iiif/iiie  rornxjiiiiKliii;/  to  a  (jlrcii, 
dunneter  of  fiflindi  r,  Iciujth  <f  MroliC,  inniiher  of  rei'oli/tioiix  per 
minute,  and  pirKsure  of  steam  in  tlie  boiler.  (1)  Multijily  the 
length  of  strokt!  in  inches  by  the  number  of  revolutions  i)erjninute, 
and  divider  the  ])roduct  by  (>.  Tin^  result  is  the  ]>iston-8]>eed  in 
fret  per  minute;.  (2)  Find  tin;  nuniluT  in  the  table  the  nearest 
to  the  given  Hteam-]iressure  anil  calculatiHl  ])iston-s])eeii,  and 
multiidy  it  by  0.7804  times  the  sipiaro  of  the  diann'ter  of  the  pis- 
ton in  in(;hes.  Krample:  An  engine  has  a  cylinder  2  inclics  in 
diainetiip,  and  a  lenjrlh  of  stroke  of  2  inclies.  It  makes  400  revo- 
lutifins  a  minute,  imd  the  boiler  pressure  is  50  pounds  jier  sfpian; 
inch.  Alls.:  'I'wice  400  is  HOO.  ,S((0  ilivhled  by  (lis  \:V.',k.  t'le  piston- 
Hpeed  in  feet  per  minute.     (I!)  'I'lie   nearest  piston-speed  iu  lablo 


ENGINEKBING. 


63 


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64 


ENGINEERING. 


is  130  feet,  and  the  number  in  table  corresponding  to  speed  of  100 
and  pressure  of  50,  is  0.074  ;  the  number  for  speed  of  30  and  same 
pressure  is  0.022  ;  required  number  is  sum  of  0.074  and  0.022,  or 
0.096,  corresponding  to  speed  of  130  and  pressure  of  50.  The  pro- 
duct of  4  and  0.7854  is  3.1416,  and  the  product  of  0.096  and 
3.1416,  or  the  required  horse-power,  is  0.3-|-. 

//. — Dlnineter  in  inches  of  cylinder  required  for  a  gicoi  horse- 
power,  piston-speed,  and  boiler-pressure.  (1)  Find  in  the  table  the 
number  nearest  to  the  given  piston  speed  and  steam-pressure.  (2) 
Multiply  the  number  obtained  in  (1)  by  0.7854.  (3)  Divide  the 
given  horse-power  by  the  quantity  obtained  iu  (2).  (4)  Take  the 
square  root  of  the  quantity  obtained  in  (3). 

Exdmple. — What  should  be  the  diameter  of  cylinder  of  an 
engine  developing  2  horse-power,  with  a  piston-speed  of  150 
feet  a  minute,  and  a  boiler-pressure  of  100  pounds  per  square 
inch  V  (1)  The  number  from  the  table  is  the  sum  of  0.161  and 
0.081,  or  0.242.  (2)  Tlie  i)roduct  of  0.242  and  0.7854  is  0.1900()(iS. 
(3)  The  quotient  of  2  divided  by  0.1900668,  is  about  10.5226  (4) 
The  square  root  of  10.5226  is  3.244-,  or  about  3J  inches,  the  re- 
quired diameter  of  cylinder.      ' 

III. — The  number  of  pounds  of  water  required  to  be  ewiporaled  per 
hour  for  each  Jiorse-poiper  exerted,  and  for  various  boiler-pressures, 
may  be  approximately  estimated  from  the  accompanying  table. 


Pressure  of 

Pounds  of 

Pressure  of 

Pounds  of 

steam  in 

vattT  per 

steiini  ill 

water  per 

boiler  by 

ett'ective 

boiler  by 

cftective 

gauge. 

horsu-power 

gauge. 

horse-power 

pur  hour. 

per  hour, 

10 

118 

60 

75 

15 

Ill 

70 

71 

20 

105 

80 

68 

25 

100 

90 

65 

30 

93 

100 

63 

40 

84 

120 

61 

50 

79 

150 

58 

It  is  convenient,  in  calculations  of  the  amount  of  water  evapo- 
rated at  various  i)ressures  and  from  various  temperatures  of  feed, 
to  reduce  ihcm  to  a  common  standard,  namely,  the  ecjuivaliait 
amounts  that  would  be  chaiigtid  into  steam  of  atmospht^ric  ])re8- 
Bure,  if  the  temperature  of  feed  was  212  Fahrenlieit ;  or,  as  it  is 
commonly  called,  to  evaporation  "  from  and  at  212°."  Two 
tables  are  ap])ended,  for  the  i)urpo8(!  of  facilitating  this  reduction. 
The  second  table  is  taken  from  Professor  Rankiue'a  "  Treatise 
on  the  Steam  J'higine." 

Pressure  and  Temperature  of  Steam. 


I'rcKKurc 
by  gauge. 

0 

10 

20 

Ten 

peiiilure 
ircniicil. 

..212" 

..239" 

250" 

Pressure 
by  gauge. 

60 

70 

80 

90     

T. 

Miperature 
ilneuheit. 

. .307° 

-.316" 

.324' 

30 

.274". 

.287' 
.298" 

.   331" 

40 

100 

.  338' 

50 

110 

.  .344 

EXGINEEKING. 


65 


Pressure 

by  gauge. 

120... 
130. . . 
140. .  . 
150. . . 
160. .  . 


Temperature 
Fahrcuheit. 


.350° 
.356° 
361° 
.366° 
.370° 


Pressure 

by  gauge. 

170. . . 
180. . . 
190. . . 
200. . . 


Temperature 
Fahrenheit. 


..375° 
..379° 
..384° 
..388° 


Factors  of  Evaporation. 


Tempe- 
rature 
of  the 
steam. 

212°.... 

230° 

248° 

266° 

284°.   ... 
302°.... 

320° 

338° 

356° 

374° 

392° 

410°. . . . 


Temperature  of  the  feed-water. 


1.19 
1.20 
1.20 
1.21 
1.21 
1.22 
1.22 
1.23 
1.2;3 
1.24 
1.24 
1.251 


1.17 
1.18 
1.18 
1.19 
1.20 
1.20 
1.21 
1.21 
1.22 
1.22 
1.23 
1.23, 


1.16 
1.17 
1.18 
1.18 
1.19 
1.19 
1.20 
l.£0 
1.21 
1.22 


1.13 
1.14 
1.14 
1.15 
1.16 
1.16 
1,17 
1.17 
1.18 
1.18 
1.19; 
1.20 


104° 

122° 

140° 

158° 

176° 

1.11 

1.10 

1.08 

1.06 

1.04 

1.12 

1.10 

1.08 

1.06 

1.04  ' 

1.13 

1.11 

1.09 

1.07 

1.05  . 

1.13 

1.11 

1.09 

1.07 

1.00  i 

1.14 

1.12 

1.10 

1.08 

1.06 

1.14 

1.12 

1.11 

1.09 

1.07 

1.15 

1.13 

1.11 

1.09 

1.07 

1.15 

1.14 

1.12 

1.10 

1.08 

1.16 

1.14 

1.12 

1.10 

1.08 

1.17 

1.15 

•  1.13 

1.11 

1.09 

1.17 

1.15 

1.13 

1.11 

1.09 

1.18 

1.16 

l.:4 

1.12 

1.10 

I 

194°      212° 


1.02 
1.02 
1.03 
T.04 
1.04 
1.05 
1.05 
1.06 
1.06 
1.07 
1.07 
1.08 


1.00 
1.01 
1.01 
1.02 
1.02 
1.03 
1.03 
1.04 
1.04 
1.05 
1.06 
1.06 


To  illustrate  tlie  use  of  the  tables,  suppose  an  engine  of  G 
liorse-power  is  supplied  with  steam  at  a  .pressure  of  50  pounds 
]ier  square  inch,  and  that  the  temperature  of  the  feed-water  sup- 
plied to  the  boiler  is  160".  It  is  required  to  find  how  much  water 
must  be  evaporated  per  hour"  from  and  at  212  "  for  the  engine. 
The  temperature  of  steam  having  a  pressure  of  50  pounds  is  298°. 
In  the  table  of  "  Factors  of  Evaporation,"  the  factor  correspond- 
in<r  to  a  steam  temperature  of  302°  and  a  feed  temjierature  of  158° 
(which  are  the  numbers  in  the  table  nearest  to  the  given  ones), 
is  1.09.  Now  this  engine  requires  an  evaporation  of  6  times  79, 
or  474  pounds  of  water  per  hour,  at  a  pressure  of  50  pounds,  or 
an  equivalent  evaporation  "  from  and  at  212""  of  1.09  times  474, 
which  is  equal  to  516.66  pounds. 

IV. — To  find  the  proportions  suitable  for  a  boiler  whicJi  is  to  have 
a  ffive/i  evaporation,  (a)  To  ascertain  the  grate-surface  in  square 
feet :  Divide  the  number  of  pounds  of  water  to  be  evaporated  per 
hour,  from  and  at  212%  by  75,  for  cylinder  boilers  ;  by  77,  for  flue 
boilers  ;  by  78,  for  tubular  boilers  ;  by  80,  for  locomotive  and  ver- 
tical boilers. 

Example. — Suppose  that  a  cylinder  boiler  is  to  be  proportioned 
for  an  evaporation  of  500  lbs.  of  water  per  hour,  at  a  pressure  of 
75  lbs.,  the  temperature  of  the  feed-water  being  80°.  The  equiva- 
lent evaporation  will  be  1.17  times  500,  or  585  lbs.,  and  the  grate- 
surface  585  divided  by  75,  or  7-ro-  square  feet. 

(b)  To  ascertain  the  heating  surface  in  square  feet  :  Multiply  the 
grate-surface  by  11,  for  cylinder  boilers  ;  by  17,  for  flue  boilers  ; 
by  30,  for  tubular,  locomotive,  and  vertical  boilers,  (c)  To  ascer- 
tain the  cross-section  of  flues  or  tubes  in  square  feet :  Multiply  the 
grate-surface  by  0.134.  This  is  an  average  value  for  good  practice, 
&nd  it  can  be  varied  between  the  limits  of  0.135  and  0.143,  as  may 


66  ENGINEERING. 

be  most  convenient.  ((?)  To  ascertain  the  length  of  hoiler  :  Cylin- 
der boilers  should  be  from  10  to  13  times  the  diameter  ;  flue 
boilers  from  5  to  6  times  the  diameter  ;  tubular  boilers,  and  the 
shells  of  locomotive  and  vertical  boilers,  from  3  to  3i  times  the 
diameter.  There  is  very  great  variation  from  these  figures  in 
practice  ;  but  the  numbers  given  al)ove  represent  the  most  gene- 
ral limits,  so  far  as  they  can  conveniently  be  classified. 

Example- — What  are  the  dimensions  of  a  tubular  boiler  for  an 
engine  that  is  to  develop  4^  horse-power,  with  a  steam-pressure  of 
100  lbs.,  the  temperature  of  the  feed-water  being  1G0°  ? 

The  equivalent  evaporation  required  per  liorse-])ower  per  hour 
is  1.1  times  63,  or  OO-^'u  lbs.  The  total  equivalent  evaporation  is 
44  times  GOi^o,  or  about  312  lbs.  Hence  the  grate-surface,  being 
the  quotient  arising  from  dividing  313  by  78,  is  4  square  feet. 
The  heating  surface  is  30  times  4,  or  130  square  feet.  The  cross- 
section  of  the  tubes  should  be  about  0.53G  square  feet  (4  times 
0.134),  or  it  should  vary  between  the  limits  of  0.5  (4  times  0.125) 
and  0.573  (4  times  0.143)  square  feet. 

While  the  rules  relating  to  engines  given  above  are  generally 
only  applicable  for  cases  within  the  limits  mentioned  at  thiB  be- 
ginning of  this  article,  those  for  the  proportions  of  boilers  give 
safe  average  values  for  the  majority  of  axses  that  are  met  with 
in  practice.  B. 

Engines,  Derangements  of. — These  are  hot  bearings,  loose 
keys,  and  leaky  joints.  If  a  bearing  heats  continually,  when 
properly  adjusted  and  well  lubricated,  it  is  too  small.  Some- 
times l)earings  heat  on  account  of  dirt  or  grit,  becausti  they  are 
set  up  too  tightly,  or  are  out  of  line.  A  hot  bearing  can  often  be 
cooled  without  stopping  the  engine,  by  mixing  sulphur  or  l)lack- 
lead  with  the  oil,  or  by  turning  on  a  stream  of  water  from  a 
hose.  If  a  joint  blows  out  it  can  sometimes  be  wedged,  so  tliat 
the  engine  can  be  run  until  stoj)inng  tinu;.  An  engineer  should 
exercise  all  liis  ingenuity  to  overcome  a  (lifRcuI  ty  without  slo])- 
ping  the  engine,  except  in  cases  where  it  would  Ix^  dangerous  to 
continue  to  run.  If  keys  or  bolts  become  loose,  it  will  generally 
be  indicated  l)y  a  thump  in  the  engine.  To  prevent  the  freezing  of 
pipes  and  connections  in  exposed  situations,  they  should  either  be 
thoroughly  drained,  or  the  water  should  be  kept  circulating  in 
them.  B. 

Exhaust  Steam. — This  should  not  be  discharged  into  a  brick 
chimney.  It  is  liable  to  disintegrate  the  mortar  and  destroy  the 
chimney. 

Steam-EngineGoveknous. — The  ordinary  ]iendulum  governor 
consists  of  a  vertif-al  s))indl<', which  is  made  to  revolve  by  suitable 
mechanism,  and  carries,  on  opposite  sides,  a  pair  of  arms,  to 
wliii-li  licavy  weights  are  attached,  forming  revolvingpendulunis, 
whicli  vary  their  ])08itions  at  dilTerent  si)eeds.  'I'he  Himj)U'St 
form  of  construction  is  shown  in  Fig.  1,  A  B  l)eing  the  revolv- 
ing spindle,  V,  and  I)  tlm  weiglits,  secured  to  the  spindle  l)y  rods 
jointid  at  (J.  Sev<Tal  positions  of  tbe  liiills  are  shown,  corn;- 
sjionding  ti)  (lilTcirnt  spi'eds  of  rotalion.  In  any  of  these  jiosi- 
tions,  the  verlii  ill  distanci-,  as  (J  l'\  I'f  tlie  point  of  suspension,  (i, 
above  tlie  centres  of  tlie  i)alls,  is  called  iln-  A.//////  of  the(joveTiioi\ 


ENGINKKIUjSTG. 


67 


and  it  can  be  found  for  any  case  by  dividing  33,508  by  the 
square  of  the  number  of  revolutions  per  minute.  For  instance, 
if  a  governor  naalics  100  revolutions  per  minute,  running  with- 
out friction  or  other  resistance,  the  vertical  distance  of  the  cen- 
tres of  the  balls  below  the  point  of  suspension  would  be  32,508 
divided  by  10,000  (the  square  of  100),  or  about  3i  inches.  A  table 
i?  added,  showing-  the  heights  corresponding  to  various  speeds. 


Table. 


Revolutions  Height  in 

per  minute.  inches. 

10 352.08 

20 88.02 

30 39.12 

40 22.01 

50 14.08 

60 9.78 

TO 7.184 

80 5.501 

90 4.347 

100 3.521 

125 3.253 

150 1..564 

175 1.150 

200 0.8802 

225 0.6955 

250 0.5G33 


Revolutions  Height  in 

per  minute.  inches. 

275 0.4646 

300 0.3912 

350 0.2873 

400 0.2201 

450 0.1739 

500  0.1408 

550 0.1164 

600 0.0978 

650 0.08333 

700 0.07184 

750 0.06259 

800 0.05501 

850 0.04873 

900 0.04347 

950   0.0:)901 

1000 0.03521 


68 


ENGINEKKIKG. 


In  practice,  the  pendulum  governor  is  generally  constructed 
somewhat  as  represented  in  Fig.  2,  being  connected  to  the  con- 
trolling mechanism  by  f<hort  lever.s,  so  that  a  slight  change  in  the 
position  of  tlie  balls  will  move  the  regulator  considerably.  In 
estimating  the  height  of  the  balls  of  such  a  governor,  it  is  to  be 
measured  from  E,  where  the  centre  lines  of  the  arms  produced 
cut  the  centre  of  the  spindle. 

When  a  governor, acts  on  the  controlling  mechanism  of  an  en- 
gine, it  encounters  some  resistance.  There  is  also  some  friction 
of  the  moving  parts,  and  a  weight  is  sometimes  added,  either 
sliding  on  the  spindle  or  connected  to  the  spindk-  by  a  lever,  in 
order  to  make  tlie  governor  more  sensitive.  All  these  things  in 
tiueuce  the  height  of  the  governor.  In  a  well-made  instrument 
the  friction  is  insignificant,  and  need  not  be  regarded,  but  allow- 
ances must  be  made  lor  the  resistance,  and  the  weight,  if  any  is 
attached.  Find  how  numy  pounds  of  force  are  re(juired  to  move 
the   controlling   meclianism  of  the   engine,  and   lind  the  weight 


of  the  balls  and  <i(  the  attached  weight,  in  i)ounds.  Next  de- 
termine how  far  the  controlling  ineclianism  is  movt^l,  and  th(^ 
attaclu^d  weight  raised  or  lowered,  for  a  given  change  in  the 
height  of  tlu!  governor  l)alls.  Divide  tint  (iistanc(!  moved  l>y  the 
resistance  l)y  tlu;  change  in  height  of  the  bails  in  the  same  time, 
and  multiply  the  <]Uotient  by  tlu^  measure  of  the  resistance  in 
])()unds  :  dividi'  also  the  vertical  distance  moved  by  the  attached 
weight  for  a  iriveii  change  in  the  height  of  tlie  balls,  and  multi- 
ply tlie  (piotient  liy  this  weight.  Take  tlie  sum  of  these  two  jiro- 
ducts  and  the  weight  of  tlu!  governor-balls,  and  divide  liy  the 
weight  of  tlui  governor-l)allH  ;  multiply  t\w  (juotiiMit  by  the  lieight 
ff)r  a  governor  working  freely,  takc^n  from  the  tabh;  above  :  the 
(jiiotient  is  the  correctrd  lieiij-ht  of  th(^  governor-balls. 

h\ri//ii />/<■.■ — Tli(i  two  l);illsof  a  governor  weigh  20  lbs.;  the  rcisi.s- 
tance  of  the  iiicchaiiisni  is  10  lbs.,  and  it  moves  l  in.  wliile  the 
heiifht  of  the  balls  chungeH  }  inch.  The  attached  weight  is  M  lbs., 
and  it  moves  2  inches  vertically,  while  tiie  lii-ight  of  the  balls 
♦•lianges  ^  in.  What  is  the  heiglit  of  Imlls  for  a  speed  of  !200 
revolutions  a  mimiteV  Multijilyini!:  the  (piotient  of  1  divided  by  ,| 
(4)  l»y    10,  tlie  product  is  10  ;  multiplying  the  <piotient  of  2  divi<l- 


ilNGINKKRlNG.  69 


ed  bj  i  (8)  1)V  8,  tlie  product  is  64  ;  dividing  the  sum  of  40,  64, 
and  20  (124)  by  20,  the  quotient  is  6.2  ;  multiplying  6.2  by 
0.8802  (the  height  for  a  free  governor  making  200  revolutions  a 
minute),  the  product,  the  corrected  height  of  the  governor-balls,  is 
about  5^  inches. 

In  designing  a  governor,  it  is  well  to  fix  upon  some  range  of 
speeds  between  which  it  shall  control  the  engine,  and  make  the 
balls  heavy  enough  to  effect  this.  The  proper  weight  for  the 
balls  can  be  found  approximately,  as  below: 

(1)  Divide  the  distance  through  which  the  resistance  moves  by 
the  change  in  height  of  the  governor-balls  in  the  same  time,  and 
multiply  the  quotient  by  the  resistance  ;  divide  the  vertical  dis- 
tance through  which  the  attached  weight  moves  by  the  vertical 
distance  moved  by  the  balls  in  the  same  time,  and  miiltiply  the 
quotient  by  this  attached  weight  ;  add  together  these  two  pro- 
ducts, and  divide  the  sum  by  2. 

(2)  Subtract  the  mean  speed  of  the  governor  from  the  greatest 
speed  it  is  to  have,  and  divide  the  difference  by  the  mean  speed  ; 
divide  the  quantity  obtained  in  (1)  by  this  quotient  :  the  result 
will  be  the  weight  of  the  two  balls. 

Example. — Suppose  the  resistance  and  attached  weight  are  the 
same  as  in  the  preceding  example,  and  that  the  speed  of  the 
governor  is  to  vary  between  200  and  300  revolutions  a  minute,  in 
controlling  the  speed  of  the  engine.  What  should  be  the  weight 
of  the  balls? 

(1)  The  sum  of  40  and  64  (the  corrected  resistance  and  attached 
weight)  is  104  ;  4-  of  104  is  52. 

(2)  The  difference  between  300  and  200  (100),  divided  by  200,  is 
0.5  ;  the  quotient  of  52  divided  by  0.5,  or  the  weight  of  the  balls, 
is  104  lbs.,  so  that  each  ball  must  weigh  52  lbs.  B. 

Horse-power,  Different  kinds  of. — In  making  an  estimate  or 
measure  of  the  effect  of  any  piece  of  mechanism  that  is  used  to 
overcome  resistance,  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  unit  of  reference. 
In  whatever  manner  the  resistance  is  overcome,  if  it  can  be  mea- 
sured it  can  be  converted  into  the  amount  of  work  that  must  be 
expended  to  raise  a  weight  through  a  distance,  since  by  suitable 
arrangements  the  mechanism  can  be  put  in  motion  and  made  to 
overcome  resistance  by  allowing  the  weight  to  fall.  This  gives  a 
simple  mode  of  estimating  the  work,  by  assuming  that  a  unit  of 
\«ork  is  the  amount  required  to  raise  1  pound  a  distance  of  1  foot 
vertically.  To  illustrate,  suppose  that  a  cut  is  being  taken  from  a 
6-in.  shaft  in  a  lathe,  and  that  the  resistance  to  the  motion  of  the 
cutting-tool  is  200  lbs.;  how  many  units  of  work  are  performed 
each  time  the  shaft  makes  a  revolution  ? 

In  each  revolution  of  the  shaft,  the  tool  makes  a  cut  6  times 
3.1416,  or  18.8496  ins.,  or  1.5708  ft.  in  length,  and  the  work  is 
the  same  as  would  be  required  to  raise  a  weight  of  200  lbs. 
through  ;i  vertical  distance  of  1.5708  ft.,  or  it  is  314.16  units. 

Now,  if  :!3,000  units  of  work  are  performed  in  a  minute,  they 
constitute  a  unit  of  power,  known  as  a  horse-power' — and  con- 
versely, a  horsepower  can  be  defined  as  the  power  required  to 
raise  33,000  lV)s.  1  ft.  high,  or  do  33,000  units  of  work  in  a 
minute.  Again,  a  horse-power  may  be  defined  as  the  power  re- 
quired to  perform  550  units  of  work  in  a  second,  or  1,980,000 


70  EXGIXEERING. 

units  in  an  hour.  To  apply  the  principle  to  the  example  given 
above,  suppose  the  shaft  makes  20  revolutions  a  minute,  how 
many  horse-power  are  required  to  drive  the  t(jol  ?  In  this  case, 
the  units  of  work  performed  per  minute  would  be  20  times 
314.16,  or  6383.2,  and  the  horse-power  would  be  ^htWd  of  6283.2,  or 
about  ju'g  of  a  horse-power.  It  will  be  seen,  from  this  e  ample, 
that  if  the  resistance  to  motion  in  pounds  and  the  speed  of  motion 
in  feet  per  minute  can  be  measured,  it  is  only  necessary  to  multi- 
ply them  together,  and  divide  by  33,000,  in  order  to  obtain  the 
horse-power.  The  steam-engine  is  a  uiachine  that  is  commonly 
rated  as  being  of  a  certain  horse-power,  but  the  term  horsepower, 
as  thus  used,  does  not  always  have  the  same  meaning.  In  fact, 
there  are  four  kinds  of  horse-power  by  which  an  engine  may  be 
rated  : 

1.  Gross  or  indicated  horse-power. 

2.  N'et  or  effectim  " 

3.  Total 

4.  Nominal 

1.  Tiie  gross  or  indicated  horse-power  of  an  engine  is  the  power 
calculated  by  assuming  tiie  resistance  to  be  that  due  to  the  mean 
effective  pressure  of  the  steam  on  the  piston,  as  shown  by  the  in- 
dicator. Thus,  suppose  this  pressure  is  3500  lbs.,  and  the  piston 
moves  400  ft.  a  minute,  the  gross  horse-power  is  400  times  3500 
divided  by  33,000,  or  30.3. 

2.  The  net  or  effective  horse-power  of  an  engine  is  computed 
from  the  useful  resistance  overcome.  If,  in  the  preceding  exam- 
ple, the  pressure  on  the  piston,  after  deducting  that  required  to 
overcome  the  friction  of  the  engine,  is  2200  lbs.,  the  effective 
horse-power  is  3300  times  400,  divided  by  33,000,  or  36.7. 

The  net  horse-power  is  the  proper  kind  to  be  specified  by  a 
steam-user  when  he  is  buying  an  engine. 

3.  The  total  horse-power  of  an  engine  is  computed  from  the  to- 
tal pressure  on  the  piston  above  a  vacuum.  If,  in  the  example 
given  in  Case  1,  the  total  pressure  on  the  piston  is  4200  lbs.,  the 
total  horse-power  is  400  times  4200,  divided  by  33,000,  or  50.9. 

Total  horse-power  is  only  used  in  comparisons  of  the  results  of 
experiments. 

4.  The  nominal  horse-power  of  an  engine  has  no  mi'uning  in 
particular — that  is  to  say,  there  are  a  number  of  different  rules 
by  which  it  may  be  computed.  Tiius,  there  is  tlie  admiralty  ruli^ 
for  nuirine  engines,  Mr.  Bourne's  rule  for  condensing  engines, 
-Mr.  Bourne's  rule  for  non-condensing  engines,  James  Watt's  ruli^  ; 
and  numi'xous  engine-builders  have  private  rules  of  tlieir  own. 
For  instance,  ^1  says,  "  I  will  make  an  engine  with  a  cylinder  10 
ins.  in  diameter,  and  a  stroke  of  15  ins.,  and  I  will  call  it  8 
liorse-power,  nomiiuil." 

li,  who  l)uil(ls  an  engine  of  the  same  size,  and  wants  to  nuike 
purcluisrrs  tiiiidv  tlicy  are  getting  more  for  their  money,  says, 
"  I  will  call  my  engine  l(i  liorse-])ower,  nominal."  The  man  who 
jfoes  to  buy  a  steam-engino  of  either  of  these  j)arties  may  very 
properly  say  to  tliem,  "  How  much  will  you  charge  me  for  an 
engini-  guaranteed  to  be  of  so  nuiiiy  horse  iK)Wi'r,  aitual  ?"      B. 

Im)KAT(»1{,  The  steam-engine. — The  construction  is  shown  in 
Figs.  1  and  2,  Fig.  1  being  an  elevation,  and  Fig.  3  a  section. 


1 


ENGINEERING. 


71 


The  iudicator  is  a  recording  steam-gauge,  very  accurately  made, 
for  determining  the  pressure  acting  on  the  piston  of  an  engine, 
at  every  point  of  the  stroke.  It  is  connected  to  the  cylinder, 
close  to  one  end,  and  wlien  the  cock,  seen  in  Fig.  1,  is  opened, 
the  steam  presses  on  a  small  piston,  shown  in  Fig.  2.  A  stifE 
spiral  spring  above  this  piston  is  compressed  by  the  pressure  of 
the  steam.  The  piston-rod,  it  will  be  seen,  is  connected  to  a 
lever,  and  this,  in  turn,  with  a:  link  and  another  lever,  a  pencil  or 
marking-point  being  placed  in  a  hole  in  the  link.  There  is  a 
cylindrical  barrel  to  the  left  on  which  a  piece  of  paper  can  be 
placed,  being  held  by  two  clip  springs.  This  barrel  can  be  made 
to  revolve  by  pulling  a  string  wound  round  the  bottom,  and  it 
has  within  it  a  coiled  spring,  which  makes  it  turn  back  again 


Fig.  1. 

the  indicator. 


Fig.  2. 


when  the  tension  of  the  string  is  relaxed.  Now,  suppose  that  the 
indicator  is  attached  to  the  cylinder  of  an  engine,  and  the  cord  is 
fastened  to  some  moving  part,  so  that  when  the  engine  makes  a 
stroke  it  causes  the  barrel  carrying  the  paper  to  revolve,  and  on 
the  return  stroke  the  coiled  spring  in  this  paper  barrel  makes  it 
turn  back  to  its  original  position.  Meanwhile  the  steam  in  the 
cylinder  is  pressing  on  the  piston  of  the  indicator,  forcing  it  up 
a  distance  corresponding  to  the  pressure,  so  that  if  the  pencil  is 
allowed  to  touch  the  paper,  it  will  trace  out  a  line  which  repre- 
sents the  pressure,  and  this  line  is  called  an  indicator  diagram. 
Such  a  diagram  is  shown  in  Fig.  7.     The  atmospheric  line,  C  D, 


V2 


ENGINEERING. 


is  traced  when  the  cock  is  closed  and  there  is  no  pressure  on  the 
piston.  At  b,  the  stroke  of  the  engine  commences,  and  when  the 
piston  has  gone  about  half  way  to  the  other  end  of  the  cylinder, 
the  steam  is  cut  off,  as  shown  at  c,  and  the  pressure  begins  to  fall 
as  the  steam  expands.  Near  the  end  of  the  stroke,  the  exhaust- 
valve  opens,  as  shown  at  d,  and  the  pressure  falls  more  rapidly. 
When  the  engine  makes  the  return  stroke,  there  is  only  the  back 
pressure^  until  near  the  end,  when  the  exhaust-valve  closes, 
shown  at  /,  and  the  steam  being  compressed,  the  pressure  rises. 
Just  before  the  end  of  the  stroke,  at  a,  on  the  diagram,  steam  is 
admitted,  and  the  pressure  rises  suddenly. 

I.  How  to  attach  the  indicator  to  the  ryliader  of  an  engine.    . 
Drill  a  hole  in  the  cylinder,  in  the  head,  or  close  to  the  end, 

and  tap  it  out  for  a  half-inch  iron  nipple.  The  indicator-cock 
must  be  connected  to  this,  using  an  elbow,  if  necessary,  and  then 
the  indicator  can  be  attached  at  pleasure.  In  drilling  this  hole, 
do  not  make  it  close  to  the  ports.  Sometimes  the  connections 
from  the  two  ends  of  a  cylinder  are  brought  together,  and  one 
indicator  is  made  to  answer  for  both  ends,  a  cock  being  fitted  in 
each  pipe,  so  that  either  can  be  opened  to  the  indicator,  as  desired. 
In  such  a  case,  the  holes  in  the  cylinder  should  be  larger,  for 
three-quarter  inch  pipe,  at  least,  so  as  to  prevent  any  loss  of  pres- 
sure. It  is  obvious,  however,  that  as  the  indicator  is  used  to  ob- 
tain the  pressure  in  a  cylinder,  the  more  closely  and  directly  it  is 
connected,  the  better. 

II.  IIoic  to  make  the  paper  barrel  have  a  motion  coincident  with 
that  of  the  pidon. 

a.  Rednciny-iclieel. — Fig.  3. 


J^e:^.J 


This  is  attached  to  some  part  of  tlie  ongino-rramo,  and  the  cord 
marked  "  to  euirino"  is  mnde  fast  to  tlw  crnsshead,  being  carried 
over  a  pulley,  if  necessary,  so  tluit  it  is  parallel  to  the  guides,  'i'he 
other  cord  is  fastened  to  the  cord  wound  round  tlie  paper  barrel  of 
the  indicator.  Tlie  two  whci-ls  bi-ar  the  siinic  j)ro]iortion  to  each 
r)tlif'r  as  the  stroke  of  Ihr  enginr  does  to  thr  (iesired  range  of 
motion  for  tlie  paper  barrel,  tlie  latter  being  usually  from  4  to 


ENGINEERING. 


73 


5  iuches.  There  is  a  coiled  spring  in  the  reducing-wheel,  which 
makes  it  turn  back  on  the  return  movement  of  tlie  cross-head. 
By  having  different  sized  wheels  to  carry  the  cord  leading  to  the 
indicator,  this  arrangement  can  be  adapted  to  engines  with  dif- 
ferent strokes. 
b.  Swinging -board,  with  slot. — Fig.  4. 


Mark  a  point,  A,  at  some  convenient  distance  from  the  cross- 
head,  and  on  a  line  perpendicular  to  the  guides,  at  the  centre  of 
the  stroke.  Attach  a  board  so  that  it  can  swing  freely  around 
this  point  ;  cut  a  slot  in  the  other  end,  for  a  pin  connected  to  the 
cross-head.  Then,  as  the  cross-head  moves,  it  will  make  the 
board  swing  to  and  fro.     At  some  point   B,  of  the  board ,  which 


has  the  proper  movement  for  the  paper  cylinder,  attach  a  cord  or 
wire,  and  carry  it  over  a  pulley,  C,  adjusted  at  such  a  height  that 
the  part  of  the  cord,  B  C,  is  parallel  to  the  guides  when  the  en- 
gine is  at  half  stroke.  The  cord  can  then  be  brought  down  and 
attached  to  the  cord  of  the  paper  barrel. 


74  ENGINEERING. 

c.  Smnging-boqrd,  tcith  link. — Fig.  5. 

Sometimes  it  is  uot  practicable  to  attach  the  board  directly  to 
the  cross-head  by  a  piu,  aud  it  is  more  coiiveuient  to  use  a  liuk 
connection,  the  arrangement  of  which  will  be  evident  from  the 
figure. 

It  is  easy  to  see  that  a  number  of  arrangements  could  be  de- 
vised on  the  general  principle  of  the  swinging-board.  Sometimes 
it  is  attached  to  the  guides  by  a  standard,  and  sometimes  one  end 
is  connected  to  the  cross-head  and  the  other  to  the  indicator,  the 
point  aroaud  which  the  board  swings  being  between,  at  distances 
from  the  two  ends  proportional  to  the  stroke  of  the  engine  and  the 
movement  of  the  paper  barrel.  Whatever  the  special  arrange- 
ment, attention  should  be  given  to  these  two  points  : 

\st.  To  have  the  hoard  perpendicular  to  the  guides  wJien  tlie  en- 
gine is  at  half  stroke. 

2d.   To  lead  tlie  cord  off  in  a  direction  parallel  to  the  guides. 

III.  How  to  take  an  indicator  diagram. 

If  a  cord  is  used  for  the  motion,  it  should  have  a  slide  on  it,  so 
that  it  can  be  adjusted,  and  it  should  have  a  hook  so  that  it  can 
be  attached  to  the  cord  of  the  paper  barrel,  and  detached  at 
pleasure.  Fine  wire  is  better  than  cord,  as  it  is  quite  flexible, 
and  does  not  stretch  so  readily.  If  several  cards,  taken  at  inter- 
vals, are  of  the  same  length,  the  connection  is  all  right.  Having 
got  the  motion  properly  adjusted,  turn  the  cock  of  the  indicator 
so  that  it  will  blow  through,  having  first  put  a  piece  of  paper  on 
the  paper  barrel.  Then  turn  the  cock  so  as  to  let  steam  into  the 
indicator,  and  press  the  pencil  lightly  against  the  paper  ;  draw  it 
back  as  soon  as  the  card  is  traced,  shut  the  indicalor-cock,  and 
apply  the  pencil  again,  to  trace  the  atmospheric  line — be  par- 
ticular not  to  trace  the  atmospheric  line  until  the  diagram  is 
taken  ;  then  unhook  the  cord,  remove  the  diagram  from  the 
paper  cyliniU'r,  and  mark  on  it  the  pressure  of  steam  by  gauge, 
the  revolutions  per  minute,  the  height  of  the  barometer,  and  the 
temperature  of  the  engine-room — if  the  proper  instruments  are 
available — and  the  vacuum  by  gauge,  the  temjierature  of  the 
liot-weli,  and  the  temperature  of  the  injection-water,  if  the  dia- 
gram has  Ix'cn  taken  from  a  condensingcngine.  All  the  dimen- 
sions of  the  engine  should  also  i)e  noted,  for  future  reference,  to- 
gether with  such  particulars  in  regard  to  the  dimensions  and  per- 
formance of  th(!  boiler  as  can  be  obtained. 

A  counter  should  alwavs  be  enii)loyed  to  detennine  the  number 
of  revolutions  ])er  minute,  at  tlie  time  the  diagram  is  taken.  It 
can  be  connected  to  the  indicator  motion,  or  to  souu^  moving  part 
of  the  engine.  Take  its  reading  at  the  beginning  of  a  minute, 
and  at  the  end,  having  indicated  the  engine  meanwhile.  This 
gives  the  revolutions  at  tlie  time  the  card  was  taken,  with  consid- 
erable accuracy. 

IV.  Ifinr  to  draw  the  true  dittr/ram. — Fig.  0. 

Tlie  indicator  diagram  from  oik;  end  of  tlu;  cylinder,  it  is  evi- 
dent, only  shows  wlutt  takes  ])lace  on  the  side  <if  the  ])iston  on 
wliich  till-  indicator  is  applied— but  at  the  same  time  tliere  is 
some  hiuk  pressure  on  the  other  side,  opposing  the  motion  of  tlie 


ENGliSrEERING. 


V5 


piston.  To  get  the  actual  diagram,  therefore,  it  is  necessary  to 
take  diagrams  from  both  ends  of  the  cylinder  simultaneously,  and 
then  combine  the  parts  of  each  that  were  traced  at  the  same  time. 
Thus  such  a  figure  as  is  shown  in  Fig.  6  is  obtained.  On  one 
side  of  the  piston,  the  line  a  b  c  f  is  traced,  and  d  c  eis  traced  at 


a 


^£^.^' 


the  same  time  on  the  other,  and  the  figure  so  obtained  is  the  trite 
diagram  representing  the  distribution  of  the  pressure.  In  using 
the  diagram  as  ordinarily  taken,  therefore,  the  actual  effective 
pressure  is  not  obtained  ;  but  there  is  no  error  in  practice,  since 
the  inaccuracies  of  the  diagrams  from  the  two  sides  balance  each 
other.  It  is  a  great  mistake,  however,  to  take  diagrams  from  one 
end  of  a  cylinder  only,  and  assume  that  those  from  the  other 
would  be  similar.  Quite  often  there  are  serious  differences,  and 
both  ends  of  a  cylinder  should  always  be  indicated,  if  possible 

V.  Ho\o  to  ascertain  the  mean  effective  pressure  from  a  diagram. 
—Fig.  7. 


a.  1st  method.— T>v&vf  perpendiculars  to  the  atmospheric 
line,  from  the  extremities  of  the  diagram,  thus  determining 
its  length,  C  D ;  divide  the  line,  (J  D,  into  10  equal  parts, 
and  midway  between  each  of  the  divisions  erect  a  perpendicular 
to  C  D,  drawing  it  between  the  upper  and  lower  boundaries  of 
the  diagram  ;  measure  the  length  of  each  of  these  lines  on  the 
scale  of  the  indicator-spring,  add  the  measurements  together, 
and  divide  the  sum  by  10.     In  the  figure,  the  pressure,  or  length 


76 


ENGINEERING. 


of  the  line  on  the  scale,  is  shown  at  each  perpendicular.  The 
sum  of  these  is  363,  so  that  the  mean  effective  pressure  is  36.3 
lbs.  per  square  inch. 

b.  2d  method. — Draw  perpendiculars  between  the  ten  divisions 
of  G  D,  as  explained  above.  Then  take  a  strip  of  paper,  apply 
it  to  the  first  perpendicular,  and  mark  the  length  ;  apply  it  to  the 
next  perpendicular,  and  mark  its  length,  next  to  the  first ;  so 
continue  applying  it  to  each,  and  when  the  last  perpendicular  has 
been  measured,  the  distance  between  the  first  and  last  marks  will 
be  the  sum  of  all  the  lengths.  The  strip  of  paper.  A  D,  is  shown 
in  the  figure  as  applied  to  the  third  perpendicular.  Measure  the 
length  of  the  paper  between  the  extreme  marks,  in  inches,  multi- 
ply it  by  the  scale  of  the  indicator-spring,  and  divide  by  10.  Sup- 
pose, in  the  present  case,  that  the  length  of  the  paper  is  found  to 
be  13.1  inches,  and  that  each  inch  represents  30  lbs.  on  the  scale 
of  the  indicator-spring  ;  30  times  13.1  is  363,  so  that  the  mean 
effective  pressure  is  36.3  lbs.  per  square  inch,  as  before. 

c.  Positive  ami  ntyatice  pressure. — Fig.  8. 


When  the  steam  is  cut  off  very  early  in  the  stroke,  and  the 
valves  and  piston  are  tight,  a  diagram  is  sometimes  drawn 
like  that  in  the  figure,  iu  which  the  back  pressure  is  greater  than 
the  forward  j)ressure  for  a  ])ortion  of  llu'  stroke,  and  the  pressure 
determined  from  the  ])f)rtion  of  the  diagram  a  r  b  must  be  sub- 
tracted from  tli(!  jiressure  due  to  the  portion  d  e  n  f.  In  such  a 
case,  the  method  of  determining  the  mean  pressure  is  as  follows  : 
Divide  tlie  atmosjiheric  line  into  10  equal  parts,  as  before,  and 
draw  i)erpendiculars  midway  between  them  ;  add  togetlier  the 
j)erpendiculars  (mea.surc'd  in  the  scale  of  the  indicator-sjtring)  in 
th(i  positive  |)art  of  the  diagram,  also  those  in  the  negative  jiart ; 
subtract  tln^  latter  from  the  first  sum,  and  divide  tin- difft^rence  by 
10.  In  the.  figure,  Ww,  pressures  at  the  different ))er|)endiculars  are 
jriven.  The  sum  of  tln^  i)ositiv<'  jjre.^siires  is  179,  of  the  nei^ative 
pressures  35,  and  the  difference  is  l.')4  ;  ho  that  tlie  mean  effective 
pressure  is  15.4  lbs.  jxt  wpiare  inch. 

W.   If  "in  to  find  the  indicated  horse-poiner  of  a  steam-engine. 

Having  dctciniinrd  tlic  mean  effective  pressure  from  »  diiigram, 
l)y  one  of  tlie  methods  explaiiK-d  abovi;,  multiply  this  pressurt;  by 
tlie  product  of  the  stroke  in  feet,  the  square  of  the  diameter  of 


ENGINEEKING. 


77 


the  cylinder  in  inches,  the  number  of  revolutions  per  minute,  and 
0.0000476. 

Example. — Suppose  the  mean  effective  pressure  is  50  lbs.  per 
square  inch,  the  diameter  of  the  cylinder  15  inches,  the  length  of 
stroke  2  feet,  and  the  number  of  revolutions  per  minute  80. 
Then  the  horse-power  is  the  product  of  50,225  (the  square  of  15), 
80,  and  0.0000476,  or  85.68. 

VII.  How  to  construct  the  theoretical  diagram. — Fig.  9. 


J^f'^.  ^. 


This  is  the  diagram  that  would  be  taken  if  the  steam  acted  in 
the  cylinder  with  the  pressure  at  the  beginning  of  the  stroke  un- 
til the  point  of  cut-off,  and  that  then  the  admission  ceased  instan- 
taneously, and  the  steam  expanded,  in  accordance  with  Mariotte's 
law,  to  the  end  of  the  stroke,  when  the  exhaust-valve  opened,  and 
the  steam  was  immediately  condensed,  creating  a  perfect  vacuum 
in  the  cylinder  for  the  return  stroke.  Such  a  diagram  is  repre- 
sented hj  A  B  C  D  E,  this  being  the  theoretical  diagram  for  the 
actual  diagram,  a  b  c  d  e.  The  following  is  the  method  of  laying 
it  down:  Draw  a  line,  E D,  a.t  a  distance  below  the  atmospheric 
line,  n  d,  equal  to  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  (14.7  lbs.  per 
square  inch  on  an  average),  on  the  scale  of  the  diagram  ;  mark 
on  E  D  the  length,  o  D,  of  tlie  actual  diagram  ;  then  find  the  to- 
tal volume  of  the  clearance  spaces  at  the  end  of  the  cylinder  from 
which  the  diagram  was  taken,  and  make  o  E  bear  the  same  rela- 
tion to  0  D  as  this  volume  of  clearance  has  to  the  total  volume 
swept  through  by  the  piston  per  stroke.  To  make  this  plaiii,  sup- 
pose that  in  a  cylinder  having  a  diameter  of  24  inches  and  a  stroke 
of  3  feet,  it  is  found  that  the  volume  of  the  clearance  spaces  at  one 
end  of  the  cylinder  is  900  cubic  inches.  The  volume  swept  through 
by  the  piston  per  stroke  is  the  product  of  0.7854,  24  squared,  and 
36  or  17,286  cubic  inches,  so  that  the  clearance  is  about  y^-g-jy  of  tlie 
piston  displacement,  and  o  E  must  be  made  toot  as  long  as  o  D. 
Thus,  if  0  D  is  5  inches,  o  E  must  be  -,"o%  oi  an  inch.  Having  de- 
termined the  point  E,  make  E  A  perpendicular  to  ED,  and  draw 
a  line,  A  B,  parallel  to  ED,  at  such  a  height  that  it  represents 
the  initial  pressure  of  the  steam.     Through  c,  on  the  actual  dia- 


78  ENGINEERING. 


gram,  where  tlie  steam  is  cut  off,  draw  a  perpendicular,  B  H,  to 
ED.  Divide  ED  into  any  number  of  equal  parts,  and  erect  per- 
pendiculars at  the  points  of  division  that  are  l)eyond  the  point  of 
cut-ofF.  From  E  draw  any  diagonal  line,  E  F,  and  from  E  as  a 
centre,  with  a  radius  E II,  draw  an  arc  cutting  E  F  in  the  point 
G.  From  the  same  centre,  and  with  radii  equal  to  E  A,  E  5,  etc., 
draw  arcs  cutting  E  F.  The  arc  drawn  with  a  radius  E  4,  cuts 
E  Fin  the  point  /.  Draw  the  line  f  A,  and  from  G  draw  a  line, 
G  ff,  parallel  to  /A.  From  g  draw  a  line,  </ /i,  parallel  to  f  A, 
and  the  point  7i,  in  which  it  cuts  the  perpendicular  drawn  through 
4,  is  a  point  of  the  curve  of  expansion.  The  construction  of  the 
points  on  the  other  perpendiculars  is  i:)recisely  similar,  and  is  in- 
dicated in  the  figure.  Having  determined  a  sufficient  number  of 
points,  draw  through  them  the  curve  of  expansion,  B  h  i  k  I  in  C, 
and  the  theoretical  diagram  will  be  completed. 

This  kind  of  diagram  is  useful  for  comparing  the  merits  of  dif- 
fei'ent  engines,  since  it  is  evident  that,  other  things  being  ecjual, 
the  engine  whose  actual  diagram  most  closely  approaches  the 
theoretical  is  the  best.  The  mean  i)ressure,  as  shown  by  such  a 
diagram,  can  be  determined  by  one  of  the  methods  already  ex- 
plained, for  ctmiparison  with  the  pressure  given  by  the  actual 
diagram. 

VIII.  IIotD  to  take  care  of  the  indicator. — Al  ways  oil  the  cylinder 
and  all  moving  parts  before  api)]ying  the  instrument  to  an  engine. 
Never  use  any  thing  l)ut  the  finest  grade  of  oil,  such  as  that 
specially  ])repare(l  for  sewing-macliines  or  clocks.  After  taking 
oiu!  or  two  diagrams,  remove  the  intlicator,  and  examine  its  steam- 
cylinder.  If  any  grit  has  entered,  wijje  it  out,  using  soft  cotton- 
waste  on  the  end  of  a  white-pine  slick.  It  is  important  to  attend  to 
this  on  indicating  an  engine  of  which  the  condition  is  not  known, 
and  if  it  is  found  tluit  dirt  or  grit  is  forced  into  the  indicator,  it 
should  b(^  cleaned  at  frcciuent  intervals  during  the  experiments. 
As  soon  as  tlie  experiments  have  been  concluded,  remove  tlu^  indi- 
cator, and  when  it  has  cooled  sufficiently,  wipe  it  out  and  ai)i)ly 
oil  in  the  steam  cylinder,  and  to  all  the  moving  parts.  Be  careful 
to  dry  till!  si)ring  thoroughly,  and  cover  it  with  f)il.  Never  put 
any  liard  sui)stance  into  tlu;  steam-cyrnidcr.  but  use  a  whit('-i)ine 
Stick  and  soft  cotton-waste.  After  u.se,  take  out  tin*  ])lug  of  the 
indicator-cock,  clean  it  and  the  seat,  ajjjjly  oil,  and  on  rei)lacing  it 
adjust  it  so  that  it  moves  f redely  and  does  not  leak. 

It  might  be  supposed  that  minute  directions  of  this  kind  were 
suiHTfhious,  and  tliat  any  one  owning  an  indicator  would  see  tlie 
necessity  of  using  su(;h  a  delicate  instrument  with  great  care. 
The  generality  of  the  indicators  in  common  use,  however,  ini- 
presB  the  observer  with  the  idea  that  all  the  directions  recittnl 
al)ove  liavf-  been  studiously  neglected  B. 

Sr,Ti)K-VAT,VK8,  Setting. — The  methods  of  adjusting  the  lap 
;ind  travel  of  slidcsvalves,  and  tlw  jiositioii  of  the  ecci-ntric, given 
itel(»w,  are  taken,  with  some  slight  modifications,  from  the  work 
of  Dr.  Zenner,  on  Siide-Valve  (Jeuring.  It  is  IxOieved  that  the 
sinijilicity  of  the  construction  will  be  appreciated  by  th(!  reader. 


ENGINEERING. 


79 


I.  Area  of  ports. — To  find   ilie  proper  area  of  port  for  a,n  en- 
gine of  a  given  piston-speed,  multiply  tlie  area  of  the  piston, 


-fc^ 


SETTINS  THE   SLIDE-VALVE, 


in  square  inches,  by  the  number  nearest  to  the  given  piston-speed 
in  the  table  on  the  next  page. 


80  ENGINKEIUNG. 


Speed  of  piston,  in  feet,  Number  by  which  area  of  piston 

per  minute.  is  to  be  multiplied. 

lUO  0.02 

200  0.04 

300  0.06 

400  0.07 

500  0.09 

600  0.1 

700  0.12 

800  0.14 

900  0.15 

1000  0.17 

1100  0.19 

1200  0.2 

1300  0.22 

1400  0.24 

1500  0.25 

II.  Lap,  lead,  and  travel  of  valve. — The  amount  of  opening 
given  by  the  valve  for  the  admission  of  steam  or  its  exhaust,  at 
the  commencement  or  termination,  respectively,  of  the  stroke  of 
an  engine,  is  called  the  lead,  either  steam  or  exhaust,  as  the  case 
may  be.  If  tlie  face  of  tlie  valve  is  wider  than  the  port,  the  ex- 
cess of  width  is  called  lap,  and  may  be  either  steam  or  exhaust 
lap.  Steiim-lap  is  an  excess  of  widtli  on  the  outer  extremities  of 
the  valve-faces,  and  exhaust-lap  an  excess  on  the  inner  fac,es. 
The  effect  of  steam  lap  is  to  cut  off  the  steam  at  an  earlier  point 
of  the  stroke,  and  exhaust-lap  causes  the  exhaust  to  open  later 
and  close  earlier  than  it  otherwise  would.  It  must  be  obvious 
that  the  action  of  the  exhaust  would  be  very  much  deranged  if 
an  attempt  was  made  to  cut  off  very  short,  and  it  is  found,  in 
practice,  that  tin;  limiting  ])oint  of  cut-off  with  the  simple  slide- 
valve  is  at  about  two  thirds  of  the  stroke. 

The  travel  of  the  valve  is  the  distance  between  its  two  extreme 
positions.  For  a  valve  without  lap  or  lead,  the  travel  is  equal  to 
twice  the  width  of  the?  steam-])ort.  If  lap  is  added,  tlie  travel  of 
tlie  valve  is  equal  to  twice  the  width  of  the  port,  increased  by 
twice  th(!  amount  of  steam-lap  on  one  end. 

III.  The  crcriilnc. — The  eccentric,  which  moves  the  valve,  is  a 
substitute  for  the  crank,  and  consists  of  a  circular  disk  secun^d  to 
the  shaft,  the  centre  of  the  disk  lying  outside  of  the  centre  of  the 
sliaft.  The  diKtance  between  the  centres  of  the  eccentric  and  the 
shaft  is  e(jual  to  half  the  travel  of  the  valve.  If  a  valve  has 
neither  lap  nor  l<;jid,  tlu^  eccentric  is  secured  to  the  shaft  in  such 
a  position  that  a  line  joining  its  centn^  with  the  centrtM)f  a  shaft 
is  perpendicular  to  a  line  connecting  the  centre  of  the  shaft  and 
the,  c(!ntre  of  the  craid^-])in.  If  the  valves  has  h^ad,  the  eccentric 
must  b<!  turned  on  the  shaft  suflicieiitly  to  secun;  the  desired 
iiiiiount,  and  if  lap  is  also  added  to  the  steam  side,  the  eccentric 
must  b(^  advanced  still  further.  In  either  of  these  cases,  the 
amount  the  (iccentric  is  moved  forward  is  termed  the  angular  ad- 
vances of  the  (jccentric,  l)eing  the  angle  niadc;  by  a  line  joining 
the  centres  of  the  eccentric  and  shaft  with  a  lint!  drawn  tiirough 
the  centre  of  the  sliafi  perpeniiiciihir  to  the  line  of  centres  of  the 


ENGINEERING.  81 

crank-pin  and  shaft.  The  points  in  which  these  two  perpendicu- 
lar lines  intersect  the  shaft  should  be  plainly  marked  by  a 
centre-punch  or  chisel,  for  convenience  in  adjusting  the  eccentric. 

IV.  Proportions  of  valve  and  .teat. — The  bridge  of  the  valve- 
seat  sliould  generally  have  a  width  equal  to  the  thickness  of  the 
cylinder.  The  width  of  the  exhaust-port  is  found  by  adding  the 
width  of  the  steam-port  to  the  half-travel  of  the  valve,  and  sub- 
tracting the  width  of  the  bridge. 

The  length  of  the  valve  is  equal  to  the  width  of  the  exhaust- 
port,  increased  by  the  width  of  the  bridges  and  the  two  faces. 

V.  To  find  the  lap  and  travel  of  the  valve,  and  angular  ad- 
vance of  the  eccentric,  for  given  points  of  admission,  cut-off,  and 
release. — Draw  a  horizontal  line,  A  B,  and  lay  off  on  it,  any  dis- 
tance, A  C,  to  represent  the  length  of  stroke  of  the  engine.  Make 
E  S  equal  to  the  length  of  the  conuecting-rod  between  centres, 
and  S  D  equal  to  one  half  of  A  C.  With  2)  as  a  centre,  and  D  8 
as  a  radius,  describe  a  circle,  which  represents  the  path  described 
by  the  centre  of  the  crank-pin.  The  arrow  shows  the  assumed 
direction  of  the  motion  of  the  engine.  Assume  some  point,  E,  at 
which  it  is  desired  to  have  the  steam-valve  beyin  to  open  when 
the  piston  has  still  to  complete  the  portion  E  A  oi  its  return 
stroke.  Assume  also  a  point,  F,  at  which  the  steam  is  to  be  cut 
off  when  the  piston  has  advanced  a  distance,  E  F,  and  a  point,  Q, 
at  which  the  exhaust-valve  is  to  be  begin  to  open  when  the  pis- 
ton has  completed  the  portion  E  O  oi  the  stroke.  Then,  with 
each  of  these  points,  E,  F,  G,  as  a  centre,  and  with  the  length  of 
connecting-rod,  ^  «S,  as  a  radius,  describe  an  arc  of  a  circle  cut- 
ting the  path  of  the  crank-pin  in  the  three  points  e,  f,  g.  Join 
each  of  these  points  with  the  point  D,  thus  determining  the  po- 
sition, D  e,  of  the  crank  at  the  instant  of  admission,  its  position, 
D  f,  at  the  instant  of  cut-off,  and  its  position,  D  g,  at  the  instant 
of  release.  Bisect  the  angle  e  D  fbj  a  straight  line,  D  L  ;  make 
D Lot  any  convenient  length,  and  upon  it,  as  a  diameter,  describe 
a  circle,  and  note  the  point,  M,  in  which  it  cuts  D  e.  From  D  as 
a  centre,  and  with  D  31  us  a  radius,  describe  an  arc  of  a  circle, 
MB  N.  Measure  the  lengths  of  the  lines  B  31  and  B  L,  and 
divide  the  former  by  the  latter.  Subtract  the  quotient  from  1,  and 
di\'ide  the  width  of  steam-port  by  the  difference.  This  gives  the 
travel  of  the  valve.  Multiply  the  travel  of  the  valve  by  half  the 
quotient  obtained  above,  and  the  product  will  be  the  steam-lap. 
The  angle  L  B  I  is  the  angular  advance  of  the  eccentric.  Di- 
vide the  length  of  S  R  by  the  length  of  L  B,  and  multiply  half 
the  quotient  by  the  travel  of  the  valve  :  the  product  is  the  steam- 
lead. 

Next  produce  the  line  L  B,  making  B  0  equal  to  B  L,  and 
upon  Z)  0,  as  a  diameter,  describe  a  circle,  noting  the  point,  P,  in 
which  it  cuts  B  g,  the  position  of  the  crank  at  the  instant  of  re- 
lease. Divide  the  length  of  Z)  P  by  the  length  of  B  0,  and 
multiply  half  the  quotient  by  the  travel  of  the  valve,  which  gives 
the  exhaust-lap.  With  Z)  as  a  centre,  and  i>  P  as  a  radius,  de- 
scribe an  arc,  P  T  Q,  noting  the  points,  T  and  Q,  in  which  it  cuts 
A  B,  and  the  circle  whose  diameter  is  B  0.  Divide  the  length  of 
T  Why  the  length  of  B  0.  and  multiply  half  the  quotient  by  the 
travel  of  the  valve  :  the  product  is  the  exhaust-lead.    Through  the 


82  ENGINEERIlSrG. 

point  Q  draw  the  line  Z)  //  :  tliis  is  the  position  of  the  crank  at 
the  instant  the  exliaust-valve  closes  and  cushion  commences. 
With  h  as  a  centre,  and  A  S,  the  length  of  the  connecting-rod, 
as  a  radius,  describe  an  arc  cutting  the  line  A  B  in  the  point  H ; 
tlieu  G  II  is  the  portion  of  the  return  stroke  completed  when  the 
exhaust-valve  closes. 

On  account  of  the  angularity  of  the  connecting-rod,  the  points 
of  cut-off  and  exhaust  closure  will  vary  somewhat  on  the  re- 
turn stroke.  They  can  be  equalized  by  a  slight  change  in  the  an- 
gular advance  and  length  of  the  eccentric  rod. 

VI.  Exiimple. — The  following  example  will  serve  to  illustrate 
the  application  of  the  preceding  principles  : 

A  valve  is  to  be  designed  for  an  engine  having  a  cylinder  20 
inches  in  diameter,  and  a  stroke  of  2i  feet,  making  80  revolutions  a 
minute.  The  length  of  the  connecting-rod  is  6^  feet.  The  valve 
is  to  admit  steam  when  the  piston  has  made  0.997  of  the  stroke, 
is  to  close  the  steam-port  at  two  thirds  of  the  stroke,  and  open 
the  exhaust  when  /'(fn  of  the  stroke  has  been  completed. 

The  area  of  the  i)iston,  in  s<iuare  inches,  is  0.7854  times  400 
(the  square  of  20),  or  314.16,  and  the  piston-speed  is  400  feet  per 
minute  ;  hence  the  proper  port  area  is  0.07  times  314.16,  or  about 
22  square  inches.  Assuming  the  length  of  the  port  to  be  ecjual 
to  the  dianieter  of  the  cylinder,  20  inches,  its  width  will  be  ./,,  of  22, 
or  1.1  inches.  The  width  of  the  bridge  must  be  equal  to  the  thick- 
ness of  the  cylinder,  or  \\  inclies.  In  tlie  figure,  make  J57iS' equal  to 
2i  times  A  'C,  and  E  A,  0.997  of  A  G,  A  F,io{  A  G,  and  A  G, 
0.95  of  A  G.  Constructing  the  positions  of  the  crank  corre- 
sponding to  these  jioiiits  of  stroke,  and  making  tli(^  other  con- 
structions as  explained  above,  suppose  that  the  data  obtained 
from  the  figure  l)v  measurement  are  as  follows  : 

Angle  li  D  M,  5^  ;  angle  M  D  jST,  108|'  ;  angle  R  U  P, 
151^°  ;  angle  T  D  Q,  137|-^  ;  angle  L  D  I,  an(pilar  advance  of 
ecrcntric,  40^^°  ;  7)  M,  0.65  of  an  inch  ;  I)  L  and  D  0,  each  1.5  inches; 
D  P,  0.19 of  an  inch  ;  SB,  0.1  of  an  inch  ;  T  W,  0.375  of  an  inch  ; 
('  II,  part  of  return  stroke  eomplet<d  when  exhaust  closes,  O.S~). 
Dividing  D  M  (0.65)  by  D  L  (1.5),  the  quotient  is  0.43+  ;  sub- 
tracting 0.43  from  1,  the  remainder  is  0.57  ;  dividing  twice  the 
width  of  steam-])ort,  2.2,  by  0.57,  the  quotient,  the  travel  of  the 
vali)e,  is  3.80  inches.  Multiplying  *  of  0.43  bv  3.80,  the  product,  the 
steam-lap,  is  0.83  of  an  inch.  Dividing  I)  /''(O  19)  by  D  O  (1 .5).  the 
quotient  is  0.127  ;  multiplying  \  of  0. 127  by  :!.S6,  \\\v.  ])r<)<luct,  the 
e.r.haiist-lap,\n  0.25  of  an  inch.  Dividing  N  11  (0.1)  by  1.5,  the  quo- 
tient is  0.007  ;  multiplving  \  of  0.067  bv  3.S6,  the  product,  the 
steam-lead,  is  0.1 3  of  an  inch.  Dividing"  7'  1^(0.375)  by  1.5,  the 
([uotient  is  0.25  ;  multiplying  A  of  0.25  by  3.H6,  the  jiroduct,  the 
exhaust-lead,  is  0.4H  of  an  incli.  Adding  the  half-travel  of  the 
valve  (1.93)  to  thr;  width  of  the  stcain-ixiH ,  1.1,  the  sum  is  3.03  ; 
Hui)tracting  the  width  of  the  bridge  (1.125),  th(^  remainder,  the 
width  of  the  exhaust-port,  is  1.91  in.  TIks  sum  of  the  steam  lap 
(0H3),  the  exhaust-laj)  (0.25),  and  tlie  width  of  the  st,eam-i)()rt  (1.1), 
thelinijth  of  the  ralee-faee,  iB2.  IH  inches.  The  sum  of  twice  the 
length'  of  "face  (1.3,6),  twice  the  width  of  bridge  (2.25),  and  the 
width  of  the  exhaust-port  ( 1.91 ),  the  leiajthofthe  ralre,  is 8.52  iiichcs. 
In  this  trxaniple  no  attempt  has  I)im'ii  made  to  secure  great  accu- 
racy, and,  as  the  measurements  were  made  from  a  small  sketch, 


ENGINEERING.  83 

tliere  may  be  considerable  errors.  lu  practice,  a  scale  reading  to 
hundredths  of  an  inch  should  be  used,  and  the  figure  should  be 
constructed  of  full  size,  if  possible.  This  can  generally  be  done 
by  laying  down  the  positions  of  the  crank  in  a  small  sketch,  and 
then  transferring  them  to  a  large  drawing  ;  or  the  positions  may 
either  be  calculated  or  taken  from  a  crank-table,  if  one  is  avail- 
able. By  making  the  drawing  full  size,  and  having  marks  on  the 
shaft  as  described  above,  a  template  can  be  constructed  from  the 
drawing,  for  transferring  the  position  of  the  eccentric  to  the 
shaft.  It  may  be  remarked,  that  however  carefully  the  valve  is 
proportioned  and  the  adjustment  of  the  eccentric  effected,  the  en- 
gineer who  desires  to  be  certain  that  the  valve-motion  of  his  en- 
gine is  properly  arranged,  will  make  the  final  test  and  adjust- 
ments with  the  aid  of  the  steam-engine  indicator.  B. 

Testing  Small,  Engestes. — The  apparatus  needed  is  quite  sim- 
ple, and  can  be  readily  constructed  by  the  young  mechanic.  The 
following  embrace  the  principal  points  that  are  generally  of  in- 
terest in  regard  to  engines  and  boilers  :  Diameter  of  cylinder, 
length  of  stroke,  diameters  of  piston-rod,  connecting-rod,  crank- 
pin,  valve-stem,  fly-wheel,  and  shaft ;  lengths  of  connecting-rod 
and  crank-pin,  weights  of  whole  engine  and  of  fly-wheel,  size  of 
ports,  stroke  of  valve,  point  at  which  steam  is  cut  off,  number  of 
revolutions  per  minute,  clearance  at  each  end  of  cylinder,  pres- 
sure of  steam  in  boiler,  dimensions  and  weight  of  boiler,  diame- 
ters of  steam-pipe  and  safety-valve,  number  of  pounds  of  water 
evaporated,  fuel  burned  per  hour,  and  power  of  the  engine. 
Many  of  these  data  are  obtained  at  once,  by  direct  measurement 
or  weight.  The  diameter  of  the  cylinder  should  be  measured 
when  it  is  at  the  temperature  at  which  it  is  ordinarily  maintained 
while  running.  The  point  of  cut-off  can  generally  be  ascertained 
by  removing  the  cover  of  the  valve-chest,  and  observing  the  point 
at  which  the  steam-valve  closes  when  the  engine  is  moved  by 
hand.  This  should  be  done  when  the  parts  are  heated.  The 
clearance  at  each  end  of  the  cylinder  includes  not  only  the  space 
between  the  piston  and  cylinder-head  at  the  end  of  the  stroke, 
but  also  the  volume  of  the  ports.  A  simple  and  accurate  manner 
of  measuring  the  clearance  is  to  fill  the  cylinder  with  water, 
when  the  piston  is  at  one  end  of  the  stroke,  and  then  measure  the 
water  carefully  in  a  cylindrical  or  rectangular  vessel.  The  dif- 
ference between  the  volume  of  the  water  and  the  volume  of  pis- 
ton displacement  (area  of  piston  multiplied  by  length  of  stroke) 
will  be  the  clearance.  In  measuring  the  piston  displacement  at 
the  front  end  of  the  cylinder,  the  volume  of  the  piston-rod  (area 
of  section  of  rod  multiplied  by  length  of  stroke)  must,  of  course, 
be  deducted. 

The  number  of  revolutions  of  the  engine  per  minute  can  be  de- 
termined approximately  by  observation  ;  but  errors  are  apt  to  re- 
sult, especially  in  the  case  of  small  engines  moving  at  a  high 
rate  of  speed.  Small  shaft-counters  can  be  obtained  at  a  very 
reasona-ble  price,  and  measurements  made  with  them  are  far 
,  more  likely  to  be  accurate. 

Many  small  boilers  are  not  provided  with  steam-gauges,  so  that 
the  pressure  of  the  steam  can  not  be  observed  directly  ;  but  all 
such  boilers  have,  or  should  have,  safety-valves,  and  the  pressure 
of  the  steam  can  be  determined  from  them.     Secure  the  valve- 


84  ENGINEERING. 

stem  of  the  safety-valve  to  the  lever  with  wire  or  string,  and  at- 
tach a  loop  to  the  lever,  into  which  pass  the  hook  of  an  accurate 
spring-balance,  arranging  the  loop  so  that  it  is  directly  over  the 
centre  of  the  valve-stem.  Then  take  hold  of  the  upper  part  of 
the  spring-balance,  and  lift  the  valve  slightly,  noting  the  reading 
of  the  balance.  Measure  the  lower  diameter  of  the  safety-valve, 
and  find  its  area  ;  divide  the  reading  of  the  spring-balance  by  the 
area  of  the  valve,  and  the  result  will  be  the  pressure,  in  pounds 
per  square  inch,  at  which  the  steam  will  raise  the  safety-valve. 
Suppose,  for  instance,  that  the  diameter  of  the  safety-valve  is  1 
inch  ;  its  area  will  be  about  fiftn^  of  an  inch.  Now,  if  the  ten- 
sion of  the  spring-balance  in  raising  the  valve  is  120  lb.s.,  the 
pressure  at  wliicli  the  valve  will  rise  is  the  quotient  arising  from 
dividing  120  by  ]Vi/(hi.  or  153  lbs.  per  square  inch.  It  will  be 
easy  to  make  a  table  for  any  particular  case,  giving  the  pressure 
corresponding  to  each  pound  or  fraction  of  a  pound  of  tension  in 
the  balance  ;  and  by  calculating  in  advance  the  reading  of  the 
balance  for  any  given  pressure,  the  weight  can  be  adjusted  on 
the  lever  until  that  tension  is  obtained,  and  the  valve  can  thus  be 
graduated  to  lift  at  anj'  reijuired  pressure.  Having  determined 
the  pressure  at  which  the  safety-valve  will  rise  when  the  boiler 
is  cold,  raise  the  valve  by  means  of  the  balance,  from  time  to 
time,  when  the  engine  is  working,  and  observe  the  tension. 
Find  the  pressure  corresponding  to  this  tension,  and  subtract  it 
from  the  pressure  at  which  the  valve  will  be  raised  by  the  steam. 
The  difference  is  the  pressure  in  the  boiler  at  the  time.  For  ex- 
ample, suppose  that  in  the  last  case  the  tension  of  the  balance, 
on  raising  the  valve  when  the  engine  was  working,  was  50  lbs. 
The  pressure  corresponding  to  this  will  be  50  divided  by  r",fo%,  or 
about  04  lbs.,  so  that  tlie  pressure  in  the  boiler  at  the  time 
would  be  the  difference  between  158  and  04,  or  8!)  lbs.  j)er  sijuare 
inch.  By  preparing  a  table  showing  the  pressure  in  the  boiler 
due  to  each  pound  of  tension  in  the  spring  balance,  the  pressure 
at  any  time  can  be  read  off  as  soon  as  the  indication  of  the  balance 
is  observed. 

The  amount  of  water  evaporated  per  hour  and  the  fuel  burned 
can,  of  course,  be  readily  determined  by  measurement,  drawing 
the  water  from  a  tank  of  known  dimensions,  and  observing  its 
state  at  the  commencement  and  close  of  a  trial,  being  careful  to 
leave  the  water  in  the  boib-r  at  the  same  height  at  which  it  was 
at  the  commencement,  and  maintaining  this  height  as  constant 
as  possible  during  th(;  experiment.  In  measuring  tlie  fuel  con- 
sumed, it  is  best  to  draw  out  the  fire  at  the  commencement  of  the 
trial,  rekindling  it  as  soon  as  possible,  and  charging  all  the  fuel 
used  from  that  time,  hauling  and  quenching  tlie  fire  immediately 
at  tlie  closer  of  tin;  trial,  and  weighing  back  all  fuel  that  is  uncon- 
suMKid.  In  the,  case  of  Hinall  boilers  heated  by  lamps,  a  measure- 
ment of  th«i  oil  used  between  the  beginning  and  end  of  th(?  trial 
will  gi^nerally  l)e  suliicient  ;  and  if  gas  is  employed  as  fuel,  it 
will  h(!  necessary  to  attach  a  meter  to  the  pipts  to  determine  the 
(|iiaiitity  consumed  in  any  given  time. 

'I'o  asc(;rtain  tin?  power  of  the  engine,  the  most  convenient  me- 
tliiid  is,  generally,  to  atta<h  a  friction-brake,  shown  in  the  ac- 
conipanying  engraving,  to  the  bund-wheel.  Hollow  out  two 
pieces  of  wood,  B  and  (.',  so  that  they  will  tit  the  circumference  of 


ENGINEERING. 


85 


the  band-wheel,  A,  and  attach  light  plates  of  metal,  D  and  E,  to  tlie 
sides,  so  tliat  the  pieces  of  wood  can  not  slip  off  when  secured  in 
position.     Provide  two  belts,  F,  G,  countersinking  the  heads,  H 


TUE    nUCTION-BliAKii. 


and  I.  into  the  upper  piece  of  wood,  so  that  they  can  not  turn, 
and  put  nuts  and  washers,  K  and  L,  on  the  other  ends,  so  that 
the  two  pieces  of  wood  can  be  clamped  on  the  band -wheel  as 
tiirhtly  as  is  necessary.  Make  the  upper  piece  of  wood  somewhat 
longer  than  the  other,  and  pass  a  rod,  M,  through  the  end.  On 
this  rod  weio^hts,  N,  are  to  be  placed,  and  the  lower  end  of  the 
rod  is  hooked  to  the  piston-rod  of  a  small  cylinder.  O.  The  pis- 
ton, P,  fits  loosely  in  this  cylinder,  which  is  filled  with  oil  or  wa- 
ter ;  and  the  piston  has  small  holes  in  it,  so  that  it  can  move  up 
and  down  without  much  resistance,  if  moved  slowly,  but  offers 
considerable  resistance  to  sudden  motion.  The  action  of  the  ap- 
paratus will  doubtless  be  apparent  to  our  readers.  By  tightening 
the  nuts  on  the  bolts,  F,  G,  there  will  be  considerable  friction  be- 
tween the  band-wheel  and  the  pieces  of  wood.  The  rod  M  must 
then  be  loaded  with  sufficient  weight,  so  that  the  engine  can  just 
move  at  its  regular  rate  of  speed,  and  keep  the  npper  piece  of 
wood  in  a  horizontal  position.  The  friction  on  the  band-wheel 
will  cause  it  to  become  heated,  unless  some  arrangements  are 
made  for  cooling,  either  by  keeping  a  stream  of  water  running 
upon  it,  or  immersing  the  lower  part  in  a  trough  in  which  the 
water  is  constantly  changed.  The  small  cylinder,  O,  and  piston, 
P,  serve  to  counteract  the  effect  of  sudden  shocks,  which  would 
otherwise  throw  the  arm  of  the  piece  B  from  a  horizontal  position. 
Now  it  will  be  plain  that,  as  the  band-wheel  revolves  (constantly 
maintaining  the  arm,  with  the  weight  attached,  in  a  horizontal 
position),  the  effect  is  the  same  as  if  it  were  lifting  this  weight  by 
means  of  a  rope  running  over  a  windlass,  and  the  distance 
through  which  it  would  lift  the  weight  in  a  given  time  is  the 
same  as  the  weight  would  move  if  the  whole  apparatus  were  free 
to  revolve.  If,  for  example,  the  wheel  makes  300  revolutions  in  a 
minute,  the  distance  from  the  centre  of  the  wheel  to  the  centre  of 
the  weight  is  1  foot,  and  the  weight  is  10  lbs.  ;  this  weight,  if 
free  to  revolve,  would  move  in  each  revolution  through  the  cir- 


86  ENGIXEERING. 

cumference  of  a  circle  whose  radius  is  1  foot,  and  in  a  minute 
W'luld  move  300  times  as  far,  or  about  1885  feet.  The  work  of 
the  ensrine  in  a  minute,  then,  will  be  that  required  to  lift.  10  lbs. 
through  a  heifrht  of  1885  feet,  or  18.850  foot  lbs.  ;  and  as  one 
horse-power  is  the  work  represented  by  33,000  foot  lbs.  per  min- 
ute, the  engine  would  be  developing  a  little  more  than  half  a 
horse-power. 

In  makinj;  experiments  with  the  friction-brake,  the  apparatus 
should  be  placed  loosely  on  the  band-wheel  ;  and  before  the 
weights  are  attached,  a  spring-balance  should  be  secured  to  the 
arm,  at  tlie  centre  of  the  hole  for  the  rod  M,  and  the  reading  not- 
ed when  the  arm  is  in  a  horizontal  position.  This  reading  must 
be  added  to  the  weights  that  are  afterwards  attached.  The  hori- 
zontal distance  from  the  centre  of  the  wheel  to  the  centre  of  the 
rod  M,  should  be  carefully  measured.  Then  start  the  engine, 
with  the  throttle-valve  wide  open,  and  screw  tip  the  nuts  K  L  gra- 
dually, adding  weights  at  X.  It  will  then  only  be  necessary,  when 
sufficient  weights  are  added,  to  keep  the  wheel  cool,  and  occasion- 
ally adjust  the  nuts  K  L,  should  the  brake  bind  or  become  too 
loose  from  any  cause.  Should  it  be  difficult  or  inconvenient  to 
maintain  the  arm  in  a  horizontal  position,  note  carefully  the  posi- 
tion it  assumes  during  the  test  ;  and  for  the  radius  to  be  used  in 
the  calculation,  measure  the  distance  a  h  from  the  centre  of  the 
wheel  to  the  centre  of  the  rod  M,  in  a  direction  perpendicular  to 
the  direction  of  the  rod. 

Instead  of  the  weights,  N,  and  cylinder,  O,  a  spring-balance  may 
be  attached  to  the  end  of  the  rod  M.  and  secured  to  some  fixed 
support,  its  readings  during  the  trial  being  used  in  place  of  the 
attached  weights.  In  this  case,  also,  the  weight  of  the  apparatus 
must  be  first  determined,  and  added  to  the  readings  of  the  spring- 
balance.  The  plan  represented  in  tiie  engraving  is,  however,  the 
best. 

Tlie  above  are,  in  detail,  the  methods  to  be  pursued  in  pre- 
paring a  report  of  the  i)orformancc  of  small  engines  and  boilers. 
Although  they  are  far  from  fullilling  all  the  requirements  of 
a  scientific  test,  they  will  give  very  accurate  results  if  carefully 
conducted.  B. 

TruRiNE  WiiEET.s.  Effective  power  of. — It  is  important,  in  se- 
lecting a  good  wheel,  to  be  assured  that  it  will  furnish  amjjle 
power.  After  ascertaining  a  reliable  maker,  in  order  to  determine 
the  exact  size  of  the  whet^l  it  is  necessary  that  at  least  one  third 
should  be  allowed  for  variations  in  water  levels,  and  for  the  lo.ss 
consecjuent  to  the  wear  of  wiicels  and  gates;  an<i,  in  addition, 
figures  should  be  made,  based  on  but  a  little  mere  tluui  a  half 
gate  of  water  to  the  wheel.  The  best  wheels  afford  almost  all  of 
their  power  at  a  five-eighths  gate  or  under,  and  a  difference  be- 
tween a  half  and  full  gate  is  not  more  than  sliould  l)e  the  margin 
necessarv  to  regulate  sjieed.  In  use  it  will  be  found  that  open- 
ing gates  seven-eighths  or  fully  simply  amounts  to  a  large 
consuin]>tion  of  water,  generally  without  producing  five  orten  jht 
cent  additional  power.  Some  good  wheels  give  less  p)wer  when 
at  full  than  at  i)art  gates.  The  rule  should  be  to  buy  a  wIuhO 
amply  sulHcient  at  not  much  above  half  gate,  allowance  being 
madi-  for  overestiiuat.-  of  power.  We  think  the  e\]ierieiu-e  of  all 
who  have  jdaci-d  whe«-ls  w  ith  a  less  liberal  allowances  will  bear 


BNGIXEERING.  87 


out  and  confirm  this  rule.  Allowing  one  fourth  for  the  friction 
of  the  sliaftint;  of  a  cotton  or  woolen  mill,  without  addinfj  one 
third  more  for  a  reserve  when  in  actual  use,  will  scarcely  fail  to 
cal^se  a  manufacturer  to  wish  that  he  had  bought  a  larger  wheel. 
Actual  tests,  accurately  conducted,  of  ol  styles  of  turbines  show 
the  comparative  range  of  effective  force,  under  the  best  possible 
advantages,  to  be  as  follows  :  At  quarter  gate,  from  13  to  .50  per 
cent  ;  half  gate,  from  11  to  71  per  cent ;  three-quarter  gate,  from 
31  to  82  per  cent,  and  at  full  gate,  from  o2  to  84  per  cent,  the  best 
wheels  giving  out  about  all  of  their  power  at  from  five-eighths  to 
three-quarters  openings  ;  while  the  lower  classes  give  but  little 
power  unless  flooded  with  water,  and  even  then  fall  far  short  of 
the  amount  claimed  for  them.  Another  reason  why  large  wheels 
should  be  used  is  that,  almost  universally,  high  and  low  points  of 
the  head  and  tail  waters  so  reduce  the  force  of  wheels  as  to  cause 
partial  stopjaages  of  machinery,  unless  there  is  surplus  power 
when  the  water  is  at  the  ordinarv  stage. 


THE   STEAM-BOILER   AXD  ITS  ATTACHMENTS. 

Boiler,  Cleaning  the. — The  flues  or  tubes  of  a  boiler  should 
be  cleaned  about  once  a  week,  with  a  brush  or  scraper.  In  case 
incrustation  has  formed  in  them,  they  can  be  cleaned  by  a  jet  of 
steam  from  a  rubber  hose.  A  boiler  should  be  blown  down 
and  cleaned,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  about  once  a  month. 
The  fire  should  first  be  hauled  ;  and  then,  if  possible,  it  is  best  to 
let  the  boiler  stand  tintil  the  water  becomes  tolerably  cool,  say  for 
12  hours,  after  which  the  water  may  be  allowed  to  run  out.  Then 
remove  the  man  and  haudhole  plates,  enter  the  boiler,  and  clean 
it  with  scrapers  and  brushes  in  every  part  that  can  be  reached. 
It  should  then  be  washed  out  with  cold  water  from  a  hose,  and 
this  washing  with  a  hose  is  the  only  means  of  cleaning  those 
parts  of  a  boiler  that  can  not  be  reached  by  hand.  There  are 
many  boilers  into  which  a  man  can  not  enter,  and  of  course  these 
can  only  be  washed  out.  When  the  fire  is  hauled,  all  leaks  in 
the  boiler  should  be  repaired.  Leaky  parts  exposed  to  the  fire 
must  have  hard  patches  riveted  on  ;  in  other  places  soft  patches 
secured  by  bolts  can  be  used,  each  patch  having  a  lip  around  it, 
and  the  joint  being  made  with  a  putty  composed  of  red  and  white 
lead.  Leaky  rivets  or  seams  can  sometimes  be  made  tight  by 
calking.  Small  leaks  around  the  ends  of  tubes  can  often  be 
stopped  in  the  same  way,  but  as  a  general  thing  a  leaky  tube 
must  either  be  replaced  or  plugged.  To  plug  a  tube,  drive  a 
white-pine  plug  tightly  into  each  end,  and  cut  it  off  even  with 
the  tube-heads  ;  then  pass  a  bolt  through  the  tube,  with  cup 
washers  on  each  end,  and  screw  it  up  tightly,  putting  putty  under 
the  washers.  B. 

Boilers,  Cylindrical. — Toflndthe necessary  tliickness  in  inches 
for  the  shell. — Multiply  the  pressure  of  steam  in  pounds  per 
square  inch  by  the  diameter  of  the  boiler  in  inches,  and  multiply 
this  product  by  0.0002  for  a  copper  boiler  with  single-riveted 
shell ;  by  0.0001563  for  a  copper  boiler  with  double-riveted  shell ; 


88  ENGINEERING. 

by  0.0001316  for  a  wrouglit-iron  boiler  with  single-riveted  shell  ; 
by  0.0001111  for  a  wrouo^ht-irou  boiler  with  double-riveted  shell  ; 
by  0.0001  for  a  steel  boiler  witli  single-riveted  shell  ;  and  by 
0.00008333  for  a  steel  boiler  with  double-riveted  shell. 

In  illustration  of  the  rule,  suppose  that  it  is  required  to  find  the 
necessary  tiiickuess  for  the  shell  of  a  copper  boiler  60  inches  in 
diameter,  double  riveted,  for  a  pressure  of  40  ll)s.  per  square  inch. 

First  take  the  product  of  40  and  60,  which  is  2400,  and  multiply 
this  by  0.00()ir)63,  which  gives  0.375,  or  'j  of  an  inch,  as  the  neces- 
sary thickness. 

To  find  the  safe  pressure  in  pounds  per  square  inch. — Divide  the 
thickness  of  the  plate  in  inches  by  the  diameter  of  the  boiler  in 
inches,  and  multiply  the  quotient  by  5000  for  a  copper  boiler  with 
single-riveted  shells  ;  by  6400  for  a  copper  boiler  with  double- 
riveted  shell  ;  by  7600  for  a  wrought-iron  boiler  with  sini^^le-rivet- 
ed  shell  ;  by  9000  for  a  wrought-iron  boiler  Avith  double-riveted 
shell  ;  by  10,000  for  a  steel  boiler  with  single-riveted  shell  ;  and 
by  13,000  for  a  steel  boiler  with  double-riveted  shell. 

Thus,  to  find  tlie  safe  pressure  for  a  boiler  33  inches  in  diame 
ter,  the  shell    being  made  of   wrought-iron  plates  \  of  an  inch 
thick,  single-riveted  :  First  divide  -^  by  33,  which  gives  i^^,  and 
multiply  this  by  7600,  the  product,  59g^  lbs.  per  square  inch,  being 
the  ])ressure  required. 

Thickness,  in  inches,  of  flat  heads  (not  stayed). — Multiply  the 
scjuare  root  of  the  pressure  in  lbs.  per  square  inch  by  tlie  radius 
of  the  shell  in  indies,  and  by  0.013333  for  a  head  of  copper  ;  by 
0.010541  for  a  head  of  wrought-iron  ;  and  by  0.0081649  for  a  head 
of  steel. 

A  steel  boiler  has  a  diameter  of  24  inches,  and  the  pressure  of 
the  steam  is  60  lbs.  per  square  inch  :  The  thickness  of  the  head 
is  the  product  of  7.746  (the  square  root  of  60),  12,  and  0.0081649, 
which  is  equal  to  0.7766,  or  about  ;i|  of  an  incli. 

Safe  pressure,  in  pounds  per  scpiare  incJi,  for  flut  heads  (not 
stayed). — Divide  the  square  of  the  tliickness  of  the  plate  in  inch- 
es bv  the  square  of  the  radius  of  tlie  shell  in  inches,  and  luulti- 
plv  the  (luotient  by  5625  for  a  head  of  cop])rr  ;  l)y  !)000  for  a 
liead  of  wrouglit-iron  ;  and  by  15.000  for  a  head  of  steel. 

Suppose  the  heads  of  a  boiler  are  of  steel,  I  inch  in  thickness, 
and  that  the  diameter  of  the  boiler  is  24  inches  :  .25  (the  square 
of  \),  divided  l)y  141  (the  squan^  of  the  radin.s),  is  .00174,  and  the 
l)roduct  of  .00174  and  15,000,  26  lbs.,  is  tin;  iiressun;  required.     H. 

Bf)ri.KKs,  Heating  surface  of. — Note  :  In  lln'  following  rules  all 
dimensions  ar<i  to  be  taken  in  feet. 

(a)  (U/lindrical  boilers. — Take  the  product  of  (1)  tlie  diameter  of 
tlie  boiier,  (2)  the  length  of  the  boiler,  and  (.3)  1.5708. 

Sii])]iose  n  given  boiler  has  a  diameter  of  ;56  inches,  and  a 
h'Mirh  of  20  feet,  its  lieating  surface  is  the  product  of  3,  20,  and 
1.5708,  or  about  94J  scpiare  feet. 

(h)  Cylindrical  flue  boilers. — Take  the  product  of  the  diameter 
of  the  boih-r,  the'length,  and  1.5708,  and  add  it  to  the  product  of 
(I )  interior  diameter  of  line,  (2)  length  of  line,  {;])  number  of  ihu'S, 
an<l  (1)3.1416. 

Snp])ose  that  a  line  boiler  is  I  feet  in  dianietei-,  22  feet  long,  and 
has  two  flues,  each  with  an  interior  diameter  of  15  inches.  Then 
the  heating  surface  is  <'qual  to  the  jiroduct  of  4. 22,  and  1.5708,  or 


I 


KNGIJVEEBING. 


89 


Internal 

surface  in 

square  inches, 

per  foot  of 

length. 

i>  CO  CO  OJ  l-         iO  Ci  iO  Ci  CO  t^  iO  CO  QO  IC  CQ  i>  t-~ 

— 'OGOGOl^OlC-^COC'JCviOCsr-CO'-^SllOi-i 

'*icioo£-c»csoT-ic.?cc-Tt<iot-^»oooo^;o 

T-JTHr-lTH-r-lT-lr-CQW<?JCOCO 

Internal 

surface  in 

square  feet, 

per  foot  of 

length. 

ooj-^crico-^oico      iocs      csto-^c"?          i- 

05O00C0CSt^0"*X)00C000t^t~-rHTtlOX)0J-rH 
00'*iOJ>C0CiO(^JG01Oi-lt-O0tS00'*'S^— ' 
C>?  00  '^  -^  JO  iC  O  t^  t^  X  CS  C5  ^  0>  ^  l^  O  O^  i-O 

000000000000-rH^T-HT-<?.-iCiCJ 

outside 

siirfiice  in 

square  inches, 

per  foot  of 

length. 

T-l  lO  1-1  ■*  00  O?  t^  tH  O         '^  GO  £>•  1.-5  tH  05  00  CO 

£-ooira-Tt<'*cocoojcQi-ic;CiOOOco-rtC5i^ 

■^iOOl-COOSO-^OlCO^lOOOOC^JOOCOt- 
■i-lT-lTHrH-T-li-lT-li-lOJOiCOCOCO 

Outside 

surface  in 

square  feet, 

per  foot  of 

length. 

0}l--0iO-rH10           '^CSCOOCC^i-H           QOO'+O'J 

t-0^'»COCS'*         100»T-Ht-OOCSOCQ^OGO 
o:?  Ci  iO  C?  CO  lO  IN  GO  LO  1-H  00  ^  £>  O  fi  CO  C;  O  i-i 
CO  0^  ^  O  O  CO  t-  L-  CO  C3  C5  O  T-H  CO  iO  00  O  CO  o 

OOOOOOOOOOOi-iT-i^^^OJCJOi 

Internal 

diameter 

in 

feet. 

Ol              00  £-  *7        00  00 1-  iC        t^        irti  GO  Oi         lO 

CI  T-H         O  ^  O  rH  ^  o  -^  C»  -^  C?  01  o?  »o  cs         o 
C5  ^  CO  lO  £^  C5  T^  CO  O  I-  C5  -rt  »0  C:  t-  lO  CO  CJ  C5 
Ot-HT-li-iTHTHC^OiWO^OJCOCOCOTitiOOC^t.^ 

ooooooooooooooooooo 

Internal 
diameter 

in 
inches. 

OOOCOt-HCOOOCOOOt— lO-i-HCOCOOl:^i>-f>^GS 
T-H  CO  iO  GO  O  SQ  O  I-  O  C?  lO  t-  (?}  £^  «?  O  O  O  iO 

Thickness 

in 

inches. 

(W  CO  J-O  Lt!  iO  C5  O  CJ                    -^  -^  CO  l--:!  IC  lo        co 
C-GOClCiOSOOOiNOJCJCOCO-^OCOOOOO 
OOOOOi-HT--,-l,-l,-ITH,-,,-lrH,-H,-l^rHCJ 

OOOOOOOOOOOOOCJOOOOO 

Outside 

diameter 

in 

feet. 

c^      00  c-  lo  CO  ffj      00  i>  »o  CO      t~      CO  I-      CO 

'^iOlfflCOf^OOO         Ot-iWCOIOO         coo         CO 
OOJ-^OOOO'MlOt-CS-'-HCOl^— 1         OOOIOCO 
,-1  ^  -rt  ^  T-H  C"*  O"?  0>  Oi  Ol  CO  CO  CO  ^  l.t'  <o  O  t^  GO 

ooooooooooooooooooo 

Outside 
diameter 

in 
inches. 

lO        to         lO  ,_  »0         lO         LO 
OJJCt-         CQlOt-         CQiOt^         lO 

^'  T-H  ,-;  (N  oj  <?:(■  ei  CO  CO  CO  CO  -#  ^  lo  o  i^  00  ej  o 

T-H 

90 


ENGi:SEEEING. 


nearly  138i,  increased  by  tlie  product  of  1.25,  22,  2,  and  3.1416, 
or  about  172f,  making  tlie  total  lieating  surface  311  square  feet. 

(c)  Cylindrical  tubular  boilers. — Find  the  product  of  the  diame- 
ter of  the  boiler,  the  length,  and  1.5708,  and  add  this  to  the  pro- 
duct of  the  length  of  the  boiler,  the  number  of  tubes,  and  the 
heating  surface  of  a  tube  per  foot  of  length. 

The  preceding  table  gives  the  heating  surface  per  foot  of 
length  for  the  standard  sizes  of  tubes. 


LOCOMOTIVE    liOlI.ER. 

JSxample. — A  cylindrical  tulmliir  boiler  has  a  diameter  of  42 
inches,  is  10  feet  long,  and  contains  40  tubes,  each  4  inches  out 
side  diameter. 

The  i)roduct  of  3A,  10,  and  1.5708  is  nearly  88. 

The  i)roduct  of  10,  40,  and  0.977  (the  internal  surface  of  the 
tube,  p(M-  running  foot)  is  about  015,  so  that  the  -whole  heating 
surfaces  is  703  s(|uare  feet. 

((I)  Lorimiotin' hi'ilcrx. —  I.  Add  together  the  following  cjuanti- 
ties :  (1)  Tlie  product  of  the  length  of  tin-  line  l)()unding  the 
croHH-section  of  t lie  furnace,  and  the  length  of  the  furnace.  (2) 
Twice  the  area  of  the  cross-section  of  the  furnace.  (3)  The  pro- 
duct of  the  hiiigth  of  the  tubes,  the  niunber  of  tubes,  and  the 
heating  surface  of  ii  tube  per  foot  of  lengtli. 

II.  Sul)tiiict  from  tliis  sum  tin'  sum  of  the  following  (piauti- 
ties  :  (I)  Tlie  area  of  the  lurnace-door.  (5)  Tlie  product  of  the 
luiMiber  of  tu])e8,  the  Hcjuare  of  the  iMternal  dianuitcT  of  a  tube, 
and  0.7H54. 


ENGINEEEING. 


91 


As  an  e'xample  of  the  use  of  this  rule,  suppose  it  is  required  to 
determine  the  heating  surface  of  a  boiler  having  tlie  dimensions 
noted  in  the   entrravinfrs.    Fig.    1   being  a  cross-section  of  the 


L(  ICOMOTIVE    BOILEK. 

boiler  at  the  furnace,  showing  also  the  furnace  door  iu  dotted 
outline,  and  Fig.  3  a  longitudinal  section.  (1)  The  length  of  the 
line  bounding  the  cross-section  of  the  furnace  is  the  sum  of  twice 
3.5,  1.5708,  and  3.5,  or  11.07,  and  the  product  of  11.07  and  4  is 
44.28.  (2)  The  area  of  the  cross-section  of  the  furnace  is  the  sum 
of  3.5  squared,  2i  times  +,  and  0.7854  divided  bv  2,  or  about 
13.89.  Twice  13.89  is  27.78.  (3)  The  product  of  8,  20"  and  0.977  is 
157.32.  The  sum  of  44.28,  27.78,  and  157.32  is  229.38.  (4)  The 
area  of  the  furnace-door  is  the  sum  of  1.5  times  1.25,  and  0.3927 
times  1.5  squared,  or  about  2.76.  (5)  The  product  of  20,  0.311 
squared,  and  0.7854,  is  about  1.52. 

The  smn  of  2.70  and  1.53  is  4.28.  The  difference  between  229.38 
and  4.28  is  about  325  square  feet,  tlie  heating  surface  required. 

(e)  Vertkal  boilers. — I.  Take  the  sum  of  the  following  quanti- 
ties :  (1)  The  product  of  the  diameter  of  furnace,  height  of  same, 
and  3.1416.  (2)  The  product  of  the  diameter  of  the  furnace 
squared  and  0.7854.  (3)  The  product  of  the  number  of  tubes, 
length  of  same,  and  heating  surface  per  foot  of  length. 

II.  Subtract  from  this  sum  the  product  of  the  number  of  tubes, 
the  internal  diameter  of  a  tube  squared,  and  0.7854. 

Example. — Required,  the  heating  surface  of  a  vertical  boiler 
with  the  following  dimensions  :  Diameter  of  furnace,  24  inches  ; 
height  of  furnace,  18  inches  ;  40  tubes,  each  3  inches    outside  di- 


92 


ES^GLfiEEBlXG. 


ameter,  6  feet  long.  (1)  The  product  of  2,  1.5,  and  3.1416  is 
9.43.  (2)  The  product  of  4  and  0.7804  is  3.14.  (3)  The  product  of 
40,  6,  and  0.4739  is  113.74.  The  sum  of  9.43,  3.14,  and  113.74  is 
126.3.  The  product  of  40,0.02374  (the  square  of  0.1508),  and 
0.7854  is  about  0.73.  The  heating  surface  is  the  difEerence  be- 
tween 126.3  and  0.72,  which  is  about  125.6  square  feet.  B. 

BoiLEKS,  Horizontal,  Setting. — The  best  way  is  to  have  the 
fire-box  at  least  as  wide  as  the  boiler,  and  have  as  much  heating 
surface  as  possible  ;  but  below  the  water-line  all  passages  should 
be  made  large,  so  as  to  allow  a  free  passage  to  the  heated  gases, 
and  where  they  leave  the  boiler,  a  damper  should  be  provided. 
The  bridge-wall  should  be  high  enough  to  prevent  coal  from 
being  thrown  over,  and  the  grates  low  enough  to  allow  ample 
room  for  combustion.  Nothing  can  be  gained  by  putting  the  fire 
near  the  boiler  or  contracting  any  of  the  passages  ;  it  is  better  to 
let  the  heat  diffuse  itself  fully  throughout  the  entire  heating 
surface. 

Boilers,  Priming  in. — If  your  boiler  primes,  either  "  swap"  it 
off  for  another  or  superheat  your  steam  moderately  ;  but  beware 
of  anti-priming  doctors  and  their  remedies. 

Boilers,  Rules  for  firing  under. — (1)  Begin  to  charge  the  fur- 
nace at  tlie  bridge  end,  and  keep  firing  to  within  a  few  inches  of 
the  dead-jjlate.  (2)  Xever  allow  the  fire  to  be  so  low  before  a 
fresh  charge  is  thrown  in,  so  that  there  shall  be  at  least  4  or  5 
inches  of  clear,  incandescent  fuel  on  tlu-  l)ars,  e(iually  spread  over 
the  whole.  (3)  Keep  the  bars  constantly  and  equally  covered, 
particularly  at  the  sides  and  bridge  end,  when^  the  fuel  burns 
away  most  rajmlly.  (4)  If  the  fuel  burns  une(]ually  or  in  holes, 
it  must  be  leveled  and  the  vacant  spaces  filled.  (5)  The  large 
coals  must  be  broken  in  ])ieces  not  larger  than  a  man's  fist.  (6) 
Wliere  the  ash-])it  is  shallow,  it  must  fr(M|U('ntly  be  cleaned  out  ; 
a  bodv  of  hot  cinders  will  overheat  and  burn  the  bars. 


■^^^' 


ll 
illlllliiPiil 


ffl: 


C'lilMNKYS,  To  Htraighten  tall. — Ilnve  a  number  r)f  oak  wedges 
made  of  HuHicient  lenglli  to  pass  through  tlu-,  entire  thickness  of 


ENGINEERING.  9^ 


the  chimney  and  project  sufficiently  on  the  outside.  Place  them 
in  sets  of  three  each,  one  over  the  other,  as  shown  in  the  en- 
graving, having  the  surfaces  in  contact  straight  and  smooth, 
and  black-leaded  to  diminish  friction.  Commence  on  the  oppo- 
site side  to  that  in  which  the  chimney  leans  ;  cut  through  to  the 
inside,  insert  one  set  of  wedges,  and  wedge  above  and  under  them 
until  they  take  a  bearing.  Repeat  the  process  around  the  chim- 
ney, except  on  the  lowest  side,  leaving  spaces  of  a  foot  or  more 
between  each  set  of  wedges.  Then,  by  driving  the  centre  wedge 
in  each  set  inwards,  as  much  of  the  chimney  as  rests  on  them  is 
gradually  lowered  just  at  the  places  and  to  the  amount  required 
to  bring  it  to  an  exact  perpendicular.  When  that  is  done,  brick 
up  the  intervening  spaces,  loosen  and  withdraw  the  wedges,  and 
brick  up  in  their  places.     This  requires  careful  and  skilful  work. 

Chimxeys,  Proportioning. — The  general  rule  is  to  make  the 
cross-section  of  the  chimney,  which  maybe  either  round  or  square, 
from  ^  to  Yjf  of  the  grate-surface,  and  the  height  from  50  to  70 
feet. 

To  determine  the  amount  of  coal  which  will  be  burned  per  square 
foot  of  grate  per  hour,  with  good  proportions,  by  Professor  Thurs- 
ton's rule. — Subtract  one  from  twice  the  square  root  of  the  height. 
Example :  What  will  be  the  amount  of  coal  burned  per  square 
foot  of  grate  surface  per  hour,  the  chimney  being  49  feet  high, 
and  suitably  proportioned  ?  The  square  root  of  49  is  7  ;  twice  7 
is  14  ;  14  less  1  is  13,  which  is  the  amount  of  coal  required  in 
pounds. 

To  determine  tJie  height  required  to  give  a  certain  rate  of  com- 
bustion.— Add  1  to  the  weight  to  be  burned  per  square  foot  per 
hour  ;  divide  by  2  and  square  the  quotient.  Example,  same  as 
above,  worked  backwards,  thus  :  What  height  of  chimney  is  re- 
quired to  burn  13  pounds  of  coal  per  square  foot  of  grate  sur- 
face per  hour  ?  18  and  1  are  14  ;  14  divided  by  2  is  7  ;  the 
square  of  7  is  49,  which  is  the  height  of  the  chimney  in  feet. 

Co.\L,  Effect  of  damp  air  on. — It  has  been  found  by  recent 
experiments  on  this  subject,  that  the  loss  in  weight,  dite  to  a 
slow  oxidation  and  to  the  disengagement  of  gases  which  form  the 
richest  part  of  bituminous  coal,  may  equal  one  third  of  the  ori- 
ginal weight.  The  heating  power  in  such  coal  was  lowered  to  47 
per  cent  of  its  former  capacity.  The  same  coal  exposed  to  the  air, 
but  in  a  closed  receptacle,  did  not  lose  more  than  25  per  cent  of 
gas  and  10  per  cent  of  heating  power.  Bituminous  coals  alter 
most  rapidly.  This  shows  the  disadvantage  of  damp  cellars,  and 
of  leaving  coal  uncovered  for  long  periods  and  subject  to  bad 
weather. 

CojrBUSTioN  AND  FuKL. — The  principal  constituents  of  coal  are 
carbon,  hydrogen,  water,  a  little  sulphur,  ashes  and  clinker,  the 
latter  two  substances  consisting  generally  of  silica,  alumina,  iron, 
lime,  magnesia,  and  oxide  of  manganese.  The  principal  combus- 
tible constituent  of  anthracite  is  fixed,  uncombined  carbon.  The 
free-burning  or  semi-bituminous  coals  contain  a  considerable 
amount  of  hydrocarbon  or  volatile  combustible  matter,  and  bitu- 
minous caking  coals  have  a  larger  percentage  of  volatile  combus- 
tible. 

If  a  mass  of  coal  is  brought  to  a  sufficiently  high  temperature 


04  ENGINEERING. 

(probably  something  above  1000'  Fahr.),  the  combustible  mate- 
rials enter  into  chemical  combination,  and  as  much  heat  is  given 
out  as  would  be  required  to  decompose  the  resulting  products  into 
their  elements.  When  coal  is  burned  the  water  is  first  expelled  ; 
then  the  sulphur,  if  any  is  contained,  is  consumed,  forming  sul- 
phurous oxide  ;  after  this  the  hydrogen  in  the  volatile  combusti- 
ble matter  unites  with  oxygen,  forming  water  ;  and  the  carbon 
set  free  unites  with  oxygen,  forming  carbonic  dioxide,  if  the  tem- 
perature is  sutliciently  high  and  enough  oxygen  is  present,  or, 
under  less  favorable  circumstances,  either  forming  carbonic  oxide 
or  passing  off  unconsumed,  as  soot.  The  combustion  of  the  fixed 
carbon  next  begins,  the  product  of  the  combustion  being  carbonic 
dioxide  or  carbonic  oxide,  so  that  liually  nothing  is  left  except 
the  ashes  and  clinker. 

It  may  be  well  to  trace  the  effect  of  these  various  combina- 
tions :  The  water  contained  in  the  coal  is  expelled  in  the  form  of 
steam,  so  that  it  carries  off  some  heat,  and  is  a  positive  disadvan- 
tage. The  complete  combustion  of  a  pound  of  sulphur  produces 
about  4000  units  of  heat,  but  the  amount  of  sulphur  in  coal  is 
usually  so  slight  that  its  heating  qualities  scarcely  disserve  to  be 
regarded.  The  action  of  tlie  sulpliur  on  the  material  of  the  boiler 
is,  however,  a  very  serious  matter.  It  has  not  yet  been  determin- 
ed by  experiment  what  per  cent  of  sulphur  is  sufficient  to  render 
a  coal  unfit  for  use  in  a  furnace,  but  it  is  well  known  tliat  "many 
of  the  Western  coals  produce  very  bad  effects  when  employed  in 
locomotive  boilers.  A  pound  of  hydrogen  combining  with  oxy- 
gen, forming  9  pounds  of  water,  has  a  heating  power  of  02,033 
units.  It  seems  doubtful,  however,  whether  this  amount  of  heat 
is  available  from  tiu;  combustion  of  hydrogen  in  a  boiler.  The 
experiments  by  which  tliis  value  was  determined  wer(>  made  u])on 
liydrogen  in  the  gaseous  stat(i,  and  the  steam  resulting  from  the 
combustion  was  condensed.  Now  tiie  hydrogen  in  coal  is  ordi- 
narily combined  with  carbon,  and  frequently  with  nitrogen,  so 
that  it  must  b(;  separated  from  the  coiul)ination  l)efore  it  can  be 
united  with  oxygen,  and  heat  is  required  for  this  separation. 
•Vgain,  in  a  boiler  thr  ])rodu<;ts  of  combustion  usually  pass  into 
llu;  chimney  at  such  a  iiigh  ti^mptu'ature  tluit  the  water,  wiiich  is 
tlie  result  of  the  combustion  of  the  hydrogen,  jjasses  off  in  the 
form  of  steam,  and  thus  carries  off  a  considerable  (luantity  of 
wliat  is  coinmr)iily  known  as  latent  heat.  Tiiis  subject  is  one 
vvhicli  liiis  been  but  little  considinvd  by  experimenters,  and  is 
worthy  of  more  extcMuhjd  inv(^stig;itioii.  The  volatiit?  comljusti- 
bh;  matter  of  i-oal  generally  contains  oxygen  in  comliination,  and 
tiiis  must  b(!  ciiangi'd  into  the  gaseous  state  before  being  unittid 
with  the  hydrogen,  an  operation  that  n^quires  as  much  lieat  as 
results  from  tlie  new  combination,  llciiice  it  is  <rertain  that  tlio 
amount  of  liydrogen  contained  in  coal  must  be  (limiiiished  by  one 
eiglith  of  the  weight  of  the  oxygen  liefore attempting  to  form  any 
estimate  of  its  heating  ipialities. 

The  cariion  of  llie  coal,  as  has  been  aln^ady  stated,  will  unite 
with  oxygen,  forming  (carbonic  dioxide,  and  may  afterwards  lake 
U|)  more  carbon,  hik!  lie  converted  into  carbonic  oxide.  Now  the 
re.-tull  of  the  coiiipleti-  combustion  of  a  pound  of  curb  m  is  I'ji  lbs. 
of  cariioiiic  dioxide,  and  the  cimilmstion  piodiices  11,000  units  of 
heat.      But   a  pound  of  carbon   iiiiperfcictly   Imrned  produces  2J- 


ENGINEERING. 


96 


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96  KNGINEEEING. 

pounds  of  carbonic  oxide,  and  only  4400  units  of  heat.  In  a  fur- 
nace where  the  combustion  is  imperfect,  tlie  action  is  iisually  as 
follows  :  A  pound  of  carbon  is  at  first  completely  burned,  fori-iung 
3|  pounds  of  carbonic  dioxide,  and  then  takes  up  another  pountl 
of  carbon,  producing  4^  pounds  of  carbonic  oxide  and  8800  units 
of  heat.  This  carbonic  oxide,  however,  if  supplied  with  a  suffi- 
cient amount  of  air,  will  burn  and  again  form  carbonic  dioxide, 
so  that  the  full  effect  of  the  combustion  of  the  carbon  will  be 
realized.  A  practical  application  of  this  principle  is  seen  in  the 
combustion-chambers  in  boilers,  which  are  designed  to  complete 
the  combustion  of  the  gases  after  they  leave  the  furnace. 

Having  disposed  of  the  materials  of  the  coal  which  escape  into 
the  chimney  of  a  boiler,  the  ashes  and  cliulier  that  remain  should 
be  considered.  The  effect  of  these  substances  is  injurious  in  se- 
veral ways  :  they  choke  up  the  furnace,  preventing  free  access  of 
the  air  to  the  combustible  materials,  and  instead  of  entering  into 
combinations  and  producing  heat,  they  require  to  be  heated  to  the 
temperature  of  the  furnace,  and  are  then  removed,  without  hav- 
ing produced  an  equivalent  for  the  heat  expended  ujion  them. 

In  ordinary  boiler-furnaces,  the  amount  of  air  required  for  the 
combustion  of  1  pound  of  coal  is  about  24  pounds,  or  between 
280  and  300  cubic  feet. 

For  a  table  of  the  qualities  of  American  coal  from  various  loca- 
lities, compiled  from  Prof.  Johnson's  Report,  see  page  95.        B. 

Feed-Wateu  Heaters,  Gain  from  the  use  of. — A  unit  of  heat 
is  the  amount  of  heat  required  to  raise  the  temperature  of  a  pound 
of  water  one  degree,  the  water  being  at  th(^  temi)erature  of  maxi- 
mum density,  about  39.1°  Fahrenheit.  The  table  below  shows 
the  number  of  units  of  heat  required  to  convert  one  pound  of  wa- 
ter, at  the  temperature  of  32",  into  steam  of  various  pressures. 


Pressure  of  steam 

Pressure  of  steam 

ill  11)9.  per  sq.  in., 

Uoitsof  hetit. 

in  11)8.  per  8<i.  in., 

Units  of  Iieat, 

by  gaii-;e. 

by  gauge. 

1 

1148 

10 

1155 

20 

1161 

30 

1105 

40 

1169 

50 

1173 

GO 

1170 

70 

1178 

80 

1181 

90 

1183 

100 

1185 

1189 

.  . . .   1192 

110 

1187 

120 

130 

1190 

140 

150 

170 

1193 

100 

1195 

1190 

180 

1198 

190 

1199 

200 

1200 

In  a  non-condensing  engine,  if  the  exhaust  steam  escapes  di- 
rectly into  tiu!  atmospllen^  it  carrii-s  off  most  of  the  lieat  tiuit  was 
|)reviously  iiiipiirte<l  to  it  by  the  coai  in  the  furnace.  This  may 
l)e  illustrated  i)y  an  exain|)ie. 

Suppose  the  steam  is  admitted  into  the  cylinder  of  an  engin(!  at 
a  pressurt!  of  90  poiiiids  ])er  s(|uare  inch,  and  exhausted  at  a  pres- 
sure of  1  pound  above  the  atmosphere,  and  that  the  temperature 
of  tlie  fi-i-d  water  is  70  .  if  the  f.-ed  wiiter  had  l)een  at  32',  it  will 
he  seen  that  eacli  jjound  of  water  would  have  re(|uire(l  1183  units 
yf  heat  to  convert  it  into  steam  of  !)(»  jiounds  pressure  ;  but  since 


ENGINEERING.  97 


tlie  temperature  of  the  feed  was  38"  above  32°,  38  units  less,  or 
1145,  will  be  necessary.  The  exhaust  steam  carries  away  1148 
less  38,  or  1110  units  of  the  heat  that  has  been  imparted  to  the 
steam  by  the  coal,  so  that  about  96.94  per  cent  ot  the  heat  is 
thrown  away.  Now,  it  costs  money  to  heat  this  water,  and  the 
steam-user  who  pays  $6.50  a  ton  for  coal,  which  converts  15,000 
pounds  of  water  into  steam,  might  make  up  an  account  some- 
what after  this  manner:  "After  evaporating  15,000  pounds  of 
water  at  a  cost  of  $0.00043+  per  pound,  I  allowed  14,541  pounds 
to  escape  into  the  air  without  rendering  me  any  equivalent,  and 
only  utilized  459  pounds  in  my  engine  ;  so  that  really  I  pay  at 
the  rate  of  $0,014+  for  every  pound  of  water  used." 

There  are  many  steam-users  to-day  who  could  readily  make  up 
an  account  somewhat  like  the  preceding. 

Now  suppose  that  the  steam-user,  being  convinced  of  the  folly 
of  paying  for  coal  to  raise  steam  wliich  is  blown  away  without 
doing  any  good,  attaches  a  heater  to  his  exhaust-pipe,  and  so 
raises  the  temperature  of  the  feed-water  to  300',  instead  of  TO'', 
as  before.  If  this  is  done,  and  the  heater  is  a  good  one,  which 
does  not  increase  the  back  pressure,  each  pound  of  water  requires 
130  units  less  for  its  evaporation,  and  each  pound  of  exhaust- 
steam  carries  away  130  units  less  than  before  ;  and  the  steam-user 
can  make  up  his  account  anew,  as  below : 

"One  ton  of  coal  now  evaporates  about  16,900  pounds  of  water, 
at  a  cost  of  $0.00038  per  pound,  and  600  pounds  of  this  water  are 
utilized  in  the  engine  ;  so  that  1  now  pay  $0.0108  for  each  pound 
of  water  that  produces  useful  effect." 

If  he  had  an  engine  of  100  horse-power,  using  30,000  pounds  of 
steam  a  day,  and  working  300  days  in  a  year,  he  would  find  that 
the  difference  in  his  coal  l)ill,  before  and  after  the  change,  would 
be  the  difference  between  $3870  and  $3420,  or  $450.  B. 

Fire-Clay  for  boiler-furnaces. — Take  common  earth,  well 
mixed  with  water,  to  which  is  added  a  small  quantity  of  rock- 
salt  ;  let  the  water  stand  until  the  salt  dissolves,  which  will  take 
about  2  or  3  hours.  It  is  then  ready  for  use.  Apply  it  as  fire- 
clay is  used,  and  your  furnace  will  stand  much  longer. 

Flue-Sheets,  To  calk  leaks  in.— Use  a  reflector  (a  tin  plate 
will  do)  adjusted  in  front  of  the  furnace-door,  so  as  to  throw 
light  on  to  the  flue-sheets,  while  calking  leaks. 

Flues,  Whovgkt-Iros.— Thickness  in  inches  of  a  wrought-iron 
flue  exposed  to  external  pressure  :  I.  Find  (1)  the  product  of  the 
diameter  of  the  flue  in  inches,  (2)  the  length  of  the  flue  in  feet,  (3) 
the  pressure  of  steam  in  lbs.  per  square  inch,  and  (4)  .000,009,091. 

II.  Extract  the  square-root  of  this  product. 

Suppose,  for  example,  that  a  flue  is  12  inches  in  diameter  and  6 
feet  long,  and  that  the  pressure  of  steam  is  40  lbs.  per  square  inch  : 
The  product  of  12,  6,  40,  and  0.000,009,091  is  about  0.02618,  and 
the  square-root  of  this  number  is  0.1618+,  or  about  -j4j  of  an  inch. 
It  will  be  observed  that  the  thickness  of  a  flue  increases  directly 
as  the  length.  Thus,  other  things  being  equal,  a  flue  that  is  12 
feet  long  must  be  twice  as  thick  as  one  that  has  a  length  of  6 
feet.  In  making  long  flues,  it  is  common  to  strengthen  them  at 
intervals  by  bands,  thus  converting  them  into  a  series  of  short 
flues,  so  far  as  the  strength  is  concerned. 


98  ENGINEERING. 

Safe  pressure  in  lbs.j)cr  square  inch  for  a  wroxght-ircn  flue 
exposed  to  external  j)ressure  :  Multiply  the  squsire  of  the  thickuess 
in  inches  bv  110,000,  and  divide  this  product  by  the  product  of 
(1)  the  diameter  of  the  flue  in  inches,  and  (2)  the  length  of  the 
flue  in  feet. 

Exeimple. — What  is  the  safe  pressure  for  a  flue  15  inches  in 
diameter,  8  feet  long,  and  f  of  an  inch  thick  '? 

The  product  of  0.140,625  (the  square  of  the  thickness)  and  110,- 
000  is  15,468.75.  Dividing  this  by  15  times  8,  or  120,  the  quotient 
i.s  about  128.9  lbs.,  the  pressure  required.  B. 

Gauges,  mercurial  steam.  Keeping  clean. — This  can  be  done  by 
putting  a  little  glycerine  or  sulphuric  acid  on  the  surface  of  the 
mercury.  This  serves  as  a  lubricator  of  both  glass  and  metals, 
and  prevents  their  adhi'sion. 

(tauges.  Water  and  steam. — When  a  boiler  is  in  use,  the 
gauge-cocks  should  frequently  be  tried  to  see  that  they  are  not 
choked  up,  and  the  glass  gauge  should  often  be  blown  out.  After 
ascertaining  the  proper  place  iov  tlie  weight  on  the  lever  of  the 
safety-valve,  a  stick  should  be  secured  to  the  lever  with  wire,  so 
that  the  l)all  can  not  be  moved  out  any  further.  A  cord  should  be 
secured  to  the  safety-valve  lever,  within  easy  reach  of  the  engi- 
neer, so  that  the  valve  can  be  opened  by  hand  if  it  sticks,  and 
the  safety-valve  should  be  tried  at  least  once  every  day,  to  ascer- 
tain whether  or  not  it  is  in  working  order. 

A  steam-gauge  should  be  tested  at  least  once  a  year,  and  the 
engineer  should  frequently  try  its  accuracy  by  allowing  the 
steam  to  raise  the  safety-valve,  and  noting  the  pressure  shown 
by  the  gauge.  The  hand  of  a  steam-gauge  sometimes  sticks,  and 
the  engineer  should  taj)  the  face  of  thegauge  lightly  several  times 
a  day,  to  assure  himself  that  it  is  in  working  order.  He  may 
also  shut  off  the  steam  from  the  gauge-pijje,  and  open  the  drip- 
cock,  noting  whether  the  hand  goes  back  pronijttly  to  0,  and  re- 
turns to  the  former  reading  when  steam  is  again  turned  on. 

In  testing  a  boiler,  warm  Avater  should  be  used,  and  a  better 
test,  when  this  is  possible,  is  to  enter  the  boiler  and  make  a 
tliorough  internal  examination. 

In  leaving  a  l>()iler  for  tin-  night,  the  fire  may  either  be  hauled 
or  banked.  If  it  is  to  be  l)anked,  it  should  first  be  cleaned  and 
then  puslied  back  and  covered  with  coal,  the  b(»iler  being  left 
with  the  furnace-door  open  and  the  damper  closed.  B. 

Joints,  Rivktkd,  Proportions  of. — {a)  Diameter  of  riret  in 
inehes  :  Multiply  the  thickness  of  plate  in  inches  l)y  3  for  plates 
up  to  f  of  an  inch  thick,  by  1.5  for  plates  from  f  to  J  of  an  inch 
thick,  by  1.25  for  jilatr-s  from  §  to  J  of  an  inch  thick,  and  l)y 
1.125  for  plates  from  J  to  1  inch  thick. 

{h)  Lemjth  <f  rirrt  iinder  the  head,  in  inches  :  Multiply  the 
tliicknesrt  of  the  ]>hite  in  ini'hcs  by  4.5. 

{c)  Distance  between  ricets,  fnnn  centre  to  centre,  in  inches  :  (1) 
Sinf/lc-rire.led  joi/its  :  Multii)ly  the  thickness  of  jilate  in  inches  by 
(!  for  ])lates  up  to  J  of  an  inch  thick,  l)y  5  for  plates  from  ^  to  8 
of  an  incli  thick,  by  4  for  ])Iates  from  |  to  |  of  an  imh  lliick,  and 
by  :{  for  platfs  from  i,  to  1  inch  thick. 

(2)  /'Jach  line  of  rirets,  (fmtldi  -rirefed  Juiiits  :  -Multiply  the  tliicl;- 
uoss  of  the  plate  in  inches  by  7  for  plates  up  to  i  of  an  inch  thick, 


ENGINEERING. 


99 


by  6  for  plates  from  J  to  -j^-  of  an  inch  tliick,  by  5  for  plates  from 
uf  to  Tb'  of  an  inch  thick,  and  by  4  for  plates  from  t^^  to  1  inch 
thick. 

(d)  Lap  to  be  given  to  joint,  in,  inches:  (1)  Single-riveted  joints  : 
Multiply  the  thickness  of  plates  in  inches  by  6  for  plates  up  to  f 
of  an  inch  thick,  by  4.5  for  plates  from  |-  to  f  of  an  inch  thick, 
and  by  4  for  plates  from  f  to  1  inch  tliick. 

(2)  Double-riveted  joints  :  Multiply  the  thickness  of  plate  in  in- 
ches by  10  for  joints  up  to  f  of  an  inch  thick,  by  7.5  for  joints 
from  I  to  f  of  an  inch  thick,  and  by  6.7  for  joints  from  f  to  1 
inch  thick. 

A  table  is  appended,  giving  the  thickness  of  plate  in  decimals 
of  an  inch,  varying  by  sixteenths  : 


Halves. 

Fourths. 

Eighths. 

Sixteenths. 

Decimals. 

1 

1 

3 

1 

0.0625 

3 

0.125 

3 

0.1875 

4  ...:..:.. 

0.25 

2 

3 

5 

0.3125 

6 

0.375 

4 

7 

0.4375 

1 

8 

0.5 

3 

4 

5 

9 

0.5625 

10 

0.625 

6 

7 

11 

0.6875 

12 :.. . 

0.75 

13 

0.8125 

14 

15 

0.875 

8 

0.9375 

3 

16 

1 

The  following  example  will  serve  to  illustrate  the  rules  : 
What  should  be  the  proportions  of  a  single-riveted  joint  for  a 
boiler  made  of  plates  -|  of  an  inch  thick  V 

Diameter  of  rivets  is  twice  0.125,  or  J  of  an  inch.  Length  of 
rivets  under  head  is  4.5  times  0.125,  or  -,\-  of  an  inch.  Distance 
between  centres  of  rivets  is  6  times  0.125,  or  f  of  an  incb.  Lap 
of  joint  is  6  times  0.125,  or  f  of  an  inch.  B. 

Lead,  Effect  of  steam  on. — Lead  iu  contact  with  steam  under 
pressure  of  over  10  lbs.  per  square  inch  very  soon  loses  its 
strength,  and  it  is  therefore  good  neither  for  packing  joints  nor 
for  conveying  steam. 

Pipes,  Steam,  Burst. — Steam-pipes  which  have  cracks  in  them 
from  having  burst,  may  be  repaired  by  heating  and  then  soldering 
them. 

Pipes,  Ste.\m,  Condensation  in  subterranean. — To  prevent  this, 
inclose  the  pipe  in  another  larger  pipe,  and  fill  the  space  between 
the  two  with  plaster-of-Paris  or  charcoal.  The  outside  pipe 
should  be  water- tight. 

Pipes,  Steam,  Isolating  material  for. — Take  182  lbs.  limestone, 
385  lbs.  coal,  275  lbs.  clay,  and  330  lbs.  sifted  coal-ashes.  This 
is  finely  pulverized,  and  mixed  with  660  lbs.  water,  11  lbs.  sul- 


100  ENGINEERING. 

phuric  acid  at  50"  B.,  and  about  160  lbs.  calves'  hair  or  liog- 
bristles.  Tlie  compound  is  applied  to  the  pipes  in  coats  of  0.4 
inch  thickness,  repeated  until  a  thickness  of  an  inch  and  a  half 
is  obtained,  when  a  light  covering  of  oil  is  given. 

Pipes,  Steam,  To  prevent  cracking,  from  freezing. — Steam-pipes 
apt  to  fill  with  condensed  water  and  burst  from  freezing  should 
have  small  holes  with  plugs  to  them,  the  plugs  to  be  taken  out 
at  night. 

Sawdust  as  Fuel,  To  burn. — A  saw-mill  owner  solves  the 
problem  of  using  saw-dust  as  fuel  as  follows.  His  boiler  was  a 
return  tubular,  14  feet  0  inches  long  and  54  inches  in  diameter, 
with  04  three-inch  tubes,  and  brick  firebox  48  x  56  x  27  inches 
high  ;  bridge- wall  was  7  inches  at  centre,  rounded  to  the  sides 
of  boiler.  He  states  :  "I  lowered  the  bridge-wall  13  inches 
(keeping  the  same  circle  as  before),  lowered  the  paving  in  rear 
of  firebox  to  a  level  with  the  grate-bars,  and  obtained  a  barrel  of 
furnace-slag  from  3  to  7  or  8  inches  in  size  and  1  or  li  inches 
tliick,  which  I  placed  on  the  grate-bars,  about  half  covering 
them.  I  fired  with  wood  ;  and  when  the  slag  got  heated,  I 
threw  in  the  sawdust,  which  burned  very  well  but  smoked  fear- 
fully (clouds  would  arise  from  the  smoke-stack).  I  then  intro- 
duced a  21nch  pipe,  with  about  fifty  ^-inch  holes,  directly  behind 
the  bridge-wall,  leaving  l)oth  ends  of  pipe  open  ;  after  which,  I 
never  had  a  particle  of  trouble  either  in  keeping  up  steam  or  in 
burning  up  the  smoke.  Not  even  in  firing  up  did  I  ever  see  any 
smoke  come  out  of  the  stack,  which  was  30  feet  high  and  32 
inches  square,  enlarged  near  top  and  to  the  top  to  30  inches  in- 
side measurement.  I  forgot  to  state  that  I  covered  the  top  of 
boiler  with  sheet-iron,  tlien  laid  brick  on  it,  covering  the  inter- 
stices with  sand.  The  sheet-iron  was  to  prevent  the  sand  from 
wedging  off  the  wall  when  tlie  boiler  expanded."  A  system  of 
alternate  firing,  and  with  grates  so  arranged  as  to  peimit  some 
charred  fuel  to  fall  througli  and  burn  in  the  ashpit,  gives  the 
best  results. 

Scale  in  Stkam-Boflers,  Prevention  of. — (1)  Use  as  pure 
water  as  your  locality  affords.  (3)  Clean  and  scrape  your  boiler 
as  often  as  you  possibly  can.  (3)  Blow  off  without  excess.  (4) 
In  case  of  salt  or  brackish  waters,  never  use  steam  of  over  OO 
lbs.  i)ri'.ssiir(^  to  tlie  sij.  in.  (5)  In  case  of  suli)hateof  lime  waters, 
ncn'cr  use  steam  of  over  70  lbs.  pressure.  (6)  In  case  of  water 
holding  carbonate  of  lime  in  solution,  pass  it  through  a  feed- 
water  heati'P  made  liot  by  exhaust  steam  or  waste  heat.  (7)  In 
case;  of  muddy  waters  use  large  feed-water  cisterns  or  reservoirs, 
Oh  tin-  l)ottom  of  which  the  suspended  earthy  matters  will  soon 
form  a  soft  deposit,  when  tlu;  surface  water  can  be  drawn  ofi' for 
use.  Winm  using  hard  water,  save  the  drippings  of  the  exhaust- 
j)ipe,  and  tin;  condensation  of  tlio  safety-valve  blow-oiT,  and 
from  the  cylinder,  and  use  the  water  thus  obtained  to  fill  tlio 
boiler  after  blowing  off.  The  result  will  be  surprising  in  its  ef. 
feet  in  loosening  scale. 

Slack,  To  burn  as  fuel. — A  correspondent,  who  has  practical- 
ly inv(;Htigated  this  subject  extensivc-ly,  says  :  Slack  nMpiires 
the  grate  bars  to  be  very  open.     I  have  used   bars    with  open- 


ENGINEERING. 


101 


Ings  of  li  inches.  The  only  secret  in  using  slack  with  any 
kind  of  a  furnace  is  to  have  the  grate-bars  open  enougli  so  that 
the  fire  can  be  l^ept  open  from  the  under  side  of  the  grates  with 
the  poker.  Some  coal,  of  course,  will  go  through  at  first  ;  but 
coarse  coal  and  wood  can  be  used  to  start  with,  and  what  falls 
through  the  grate  must  be  raked  out  and  put  in  again.  The  coal 
will  soon  cake  so  that  it  will  not  waste.  Make  the  furnace  wider 
than  usual,  in  building  it,  with  doors  in  the  side  of  the  front, 
similar  to  furnaces  for  burning  sawdust.  For  some  varieties  of 
coal,  it  will  be  found  beneficial  to  wet  the  coal  before  throwing 
it  into  the  furnace  ;  this  helps  to  run  the  coal  together.  Then 
put  in  the  coal  at  the  side  doors,  and  let  it  alone  till  it  cakes  ; 
then  with  the  poker  roll  it  into  the  centre  of  the  fire.  It  will  be 
in  large  lumps  and  will  not  waste,  and  there  will  always  be  a 
good  fire  in  the  centre.  Never  smother  it  with  fresh  coal.  A 
system  of  introducing  comminuted  fuel  with  the  air  required  for 
its  combustion,  by  means  of  a  fan-blower,  has  been  introduced 
by  a  Boston  firm. 

Specific  Heat. — Table  showing  the  number  of  units  of  heat  re- 
quired to  raise  the  temperature  of  one  pound  of  a  substance  one  de- 
gree Fahrenheit. 

Copper.    0.09515 

Corrosive  sublimate.  . . .  0.06889 

Corundum 0.19762 

Diamond 0.14687 

Ether  (liquid) 0.50342 

"      (vapor) 0.48100 

Fusel  Oil 0.56400 

Galena 0.05086 

Glass 0.19768 

Glucinum 0.23080 

Gold 0.03244 

Graphite 0.20083 

Hydrochloric  acid 0.18450 

Hydrogen 3.40900 

Ice 0.47400 

Iceland  spar 0.20858 

Indium 0.05700 

Iodide  of  mercury 0.04197 

"  potassium 0.08191 

"  silver 0.06159 

Iodine  (solid) 0.05412 

(liquid) 0.10822 

Iridium 0.03259 

Iron 0.11380 

Iron  pyrites 0.13001 

Lead  (solid) 0.03065 

"      (liquid) 0.04020 

Lithium 0.94080 

Magnesium 0.24990 

Manganese 0.12170 

Marble 0.20989 

Mercury  (liquid) 0.03332 


Air 

0.23740 

Alcohol  (liquid) 

0.61500 

"       (vapor) 

0.45340 

Aluminum 

0.21430 

Ammonia  (vapor) 

0.50830 

Anthracite  coal 

0.20100 

Antimony 

0.05077 

Aragonite 

0.20850 

Arsenic 

0.08140 

Benzine 

0.45000 

Bismuth  (solid) 

0.03084 

(liquid) 

0.03630 

Bituminous  coal 

0.20085 

Boron 

0.25000 

Brass 

0.09391 

Bromine  (liquid) 

0.10700 

"       (gas) 

0.05550 

Cadmium 

0.05669 

Carbonic  acid 

0.21630 

"     oxide 

0.24500 

Chalk     

0.21485 

Charcoal 

0.24150 

Chloride  of  barium 

0.89570 

"            "  calcium.  .. . 

0.16420 

"lead 

0.06641 

"            "  magnesium 

0.19460 

"            "  manganese. 

0.14250 

Chloride  of  strontium. . 

0.11990 

"zinc 

013618 

Chlorine  (gas) 

0.12100 

Chromium 

0 12000 

Cobalt 

0.10730 

102 


ENGINEERING. 


Mercury  (solid) 0.03192 

Molybdenum 0.07218 

Nickel 0.11080 

Niobium 0.06820 

Nitrate  of  sodium 0.27821 

"  silver 0.14:r)'j 

Nitre 0.2:!s:,j 

Nitric  oxide 0.28150 

Nitrogen 0.24380 

Nitrous  oxide 022380 

Oil  of  turpentine  (liq'd)  0.4G727 
"   "  "     (vapor).  O.oOGlO 

Olefiant  gas 0.40400 

Olive  oil 0.31000 

Osmium 0.03113 

Oxygen 0.21750 

Palladium 0.05928 

Petroleum 0.46840 

Phosphorus 0.18870 

Platinum 0.03243 

Potas.sium 0.10956 

Rhodium 0.05803 

Ruthenium 006110 

Salt 0.17295 

Sapphire 0.21737 


Selenium 0. 

Silica 0. 

Silicon 0. 

Silver 0, 

Sodium 0. 

Steam.  ...    0. 

Steel 0. 

Sulphide  of  carbon 0. 

"  zinc 0 

Sulphur  (native) 0. 

(purified) 0 

(liquid) O 

Sulphuric  acil 0 

Tantalum 0, 

Tellurium 0 

Thallium 0 

Thorhium 0 

Tin  (solid) 0 

"  (liquid) 0 

Tungsten 0 

Uranium 0 

Vanadium 0 

Water 1. 

Wood  spirit 0 

Zinc 0 


07446 
19132 
,17740 
,05701 
29340 
48050 
11750 
,15700 
.12813 
,17760 
,20259 
,23400 
34300 
.04840 
.04737 
.03355 
.05800 
05623 
06370 
.03342 
06190 
.08140 
00000 
64500 
09555 
B. 


Staved  Sukface,  Safe  pressure,  in  lbs.  per  square  inch,  for 
a. — Divide  the  scjuare  of  the  thickness  of  the  jdate  in  inches,  by 
the  square  of  the  distance  between  stays,  in  inches,  and  multiply 
the  (juotient  by  16,875  for  a  cojjper  plate,  by  27,000  for  a 
wrought-iron  plate,  and  by  45,000  for  a  steel  i)late 

JSxanqjle. —  What  is  the  safe  jiressure  for  a  plate  of  wrought 
iron,  i  of  an  inch  thick,  secured  by  stays  G  inches  from  centre  to 
centre  ? 

The  quotient  arising  from  dividing  0.0625  (the  square  of  i)  by 
36,  is  0.00174.  Multii)lying  0.00174  by  27,000,  the  product  is  the 
required  pressun;,  about  47  lbs.  per  scjuare  iucli.  B. 

Stayed  Suuface,  Thickness  of,  in  inches. — Multiply  the 
square  root  of  the  pressure,  in  lbs.  i)er  scjuare  inch,  by  the  dis- 
tance between  centres  of  stays  in  inches,  and  nuiltii)ly  this  ])ro- 
ducl  by  0.007698  for  a  (•<)i)|M'r  pint.-,  by  0.()()6()S5S  for  a  wroiight- 
injn  jjlate,  l)y  0. 00171  II  for  a  stci'l  ))latc. 

For  a  cop])ir  lire  box,  in  which  the  stays  are  10  inches  apart 
from  centre  to  centre,  and  the  pnissure  f)f  steam  is  60  lbs.  :  The 
thickness  of  plate  is  th(!  product  of  7.7  Ki  (the  scjuare  root  of  60), 

of  an 
B. 


wliicli   is  e(|iial  to   0.596,   or  about  \'i 


10.  and   0007698 
inch 

St.\y,  Proper  diameter  for  a,  in  inches.— Multiply  tlie  distance 
between  stays,  in  inclies,  by  tlir-  winare  root  of  the  ])ressure,  in 
pounds  per  sipiure  inch,  and  nniltiply  this  prodiu-t  by  0.0206  for 
a  c  |)per  stay,  by  ().OI7«4  lor  a  wrought  iron  stay. 

Era mplc.—Wi' hat    is   tlie   proi)er    diameter    loi    wrought-iron 


ENGHSTEERIIfG.  1 03 

stays,  6  inches  between  centres,  tlie  pressure  of  steam  being  75 
i:)ounds  per  square  inch  ? 

This  is  the  in-oduct  of  6,  8.66  (the  square  root  of  75),  and 
0.01784  ;  which  is  equal  to  0.92697,  or  about  |f  of  an  inch.     B. 

Stats,  Distance  between,  in  inches. — Divide  the  thickness  of 
tlie  plate,  in  inclies,  by  the  square  root  of  the  pressure,  in  lbs. 
per  square  iucli,  and  multiply  the  quotient  by  180,  if  the  stayed 
surface  is  copper  ;  by  164,  if  the  stayed  surface  is  wrought  iron  ; 
by  212,  if  the  stayed  surface  is  steel. 

Suppose  the  fire-box  of  a  boiler  is  to  be  made  of  steel  plates,  f 
of  an  inch  thick,  and  the  pressure  of  steam  is  to  be  100  lbs.  per 
square  inch. 

Divide  0.375  by  10,  and  multiply  the  quotient,  0.0375,  by  212  ; 
which  gives  7.95,  say  8  inches,  as  the  proper  distance  between 
stays.  B. 

Note. — The  rules  for  stayed  siirfaces  and  flat  boiler-heads  are 
adapted  from  methods  explained  bv  Dr.  Grashof  in  "  Die  Festig- 
keitslehre,"  Berlin,  1866. 

VaXiVE,  Safety,  A  simple  test  for  determining  the  accuracy 
of. — Secure  the  valve-stem  of  the  safety-valv^e  to  the  lever  with 
wire  or  string,  and  attach  a  loop  to  the  lever,  into  which  pass 
the  hook  of  an  accurate  spring-balance,  arranging  the  loop  so 
that  it  is  directly  over  the  centre  of  the  valve-stem.  Then  take 
hold  of  the  iipper  part  of  the  spring-balance,  and  lift  the  valve 
slightly,  noting  the  reading  of  the  balance.  Measure  the  lower 
diameter  of  the  safety-valve,  and  find  its  area  ;  divide  the  read- 
ing of  the  spring-balance  by  the  area  of  the  valve,  and  the  result 
will  be  the  pi-essure,  in  pounds  per  square  inch,  at  which  the 
steam  will  raise  the  safety-valve.  Suppose,  for  instance,  that 
the  diameter  of  the  safety-valve  is  1  inch  ;  its  area  will  be  about 
fuWo  of  an  inch.  Xow,  if  the  tension  of  the  spring-balance  in 
raising  the  valve  is  130  lbs.,  the  pressure  at  which  the  valve  will 
rise  is  the  quotient  arising  from  dividing  120  by  -/tAnnj)  or  153  lbs. 
per  square  inch. 

A  table  is  appended,  gi^^ng  the  areas  of  valves  for  the  ma- 
jority of  cases  that  occur  in  practice  : 

Table  of  Areas  of  Valves  of  Different  Diameters. 
Diameter  of  valve  in  inches.  Area  of  valve  in  square  inclies. 

i  or  0.5     13-64  or  0.19635 

f  or  0.625 5-16  or  0.30G80 

for  0.75   7-16  or  0.44179 

i  or  0.875 19-32  or  0.60132 

1  25-32  or  0.7854 

li  or  1.25 1  15-64  or  1.2272 

H  or  1.5     1  49-64  or  1.7671 

li  or  1.75   2  13-32  or  2.4053 

2  3    9-64  or  3.1416 

2i  or  2.5 4  29-32  or  4.9087 

3  7  1-16  or  7.0686 

3ior3.5  9     5  8    or  9.6211 

4  13    9-16  or  12.5664 

•     ,        4|  or  4.5     15  29-33  or  15.9043 


104  ENGIXEERING. 

Diameter  of  valve  in  inches.  Area  of  valve  in  square  inches. 

5  19  41-64  or  19.635 

5i  or  5.5     28  49-64  or  23.7583 

6  28    9-82  or  28.2744 

B. 

Vi  LVE,  Safety,  Hints  concerning  the. — Some  convenient  ar 
rangi  nieut,  such  as  a  cord  or  lever,  should  be  fitted  to  a  safety- 
valve,  so  that  it  can  readily  be  opened  by  hand  ;  and  the  valve 
should  be  moved  at  least  once  a  day,  to  keep  it  in  good  workiuj; 
order.  A  simple  experiment  to  determine  whetlier  or  not  the 
valve  is  in  truth  a  safety  valve  can  readily  b(=i  made  by  everv 
steam-user.  It  will  only  be  necessary  to  shut  off  tlie  steam  from 
the  engine,  or  wlierever  else  it  is  used,  and  making  up  a  good 
fire  in  the  boiler,  observe  whether  the  pressure  increases  materi- 
ally beyond  the  point  for  which  the  valve  is  set.  This  experiment 
can  be  made  without  the  slightest  danger,  since,  if  the  valve 
will  not  relieve  the  boiler  automatically,  it  can  be  opened  to  anv 
desired  extent  by  hand.  Any  one  can  readily  perceive  the  ini- 
portance  of  making  this  test,  for  with  a  good  safety-valve  in 
working  order,  the  chances  of  a  disastrous  boiler  explosion  are 
greatly  diminished.  B. 

Valve,  Safety,  Proper  diameter,  in  inches,  for  a. — This  de- 
pends upon  (1)  the  steam-pressure  to  which  the  valve  is  ex- 
posed ;  (2)  the  lift  of  the  valve  ;  (3)  tlie  (luautity  of  steam  that 
must  be  discharged  in  a  given  time,  in  order  to  prevent  an  in- 
crease of  pressure.  These  quantities  having  been  determined,  it 
is  necessary  to  calculate  (1)  the  area  of  opening  required  in  order 
to  discharge  tlie  given  quantity  of  steam  ;  (2)  tlie  diameter  of  a 
valve  tliat  will  afford  the  required  area  of  opening  with  the 
given  lift. 

The  method  of  making  these  calculations  is  explained  below. 

A.  IJie  area  of  apening,  in  squ<tre  inches,  required,  in  order  that 
a  safety-valve  may  prevent  the  increase  of  steam-pressure  beyond  a 
given  point. 

(a)  For  stationary  and  marine  boilers  with  natural  draft  :  Take 
the  product  of  (1)  the  area  of  the  grate-surface  in  .-square  feet,  and 
(2)  2.63,  and  divide  tliis  product  by  the  steam-pressure  as  shown 
by  gauge,  increased  by  14.7. 

{b)  For  stationary  and  marine  Ijoilers  with  forced  draft  :  Take 
the  ])rodui-t  of  (1)  the  area  of  the  grate  surface  in  square  feet, 
and   (3)  4.08,  and   divide  this  product  by  the  stcam-prt's.siire  as 
shown  by  gaiigi;,  increased  l)y  14.7. 

(c)  For  loaunotive  boilers  :  Take  the  i)roduct  of  (1)  the  area 
of  the  grate-surface  in  stjuare  feet,  (2)  11.67,  and  divide  this 
l)r<Kluct  by  the  steam-pressure  as  shown  bv  gauge,  increased  by 
14.7. 

'I'o  illiistriite  the  rules,  su])pi)se  that  the  steam-])ressuro  in  a 
locomotive  jjoiler  is  150  lbs.  by  gauge  ;  wliat  is  tlie  proi)er  area  of 
opening  for  the  esfMipt;  of  steam  by  the  safety-valvo,  the  grate- 
Hurfaci^  l)eing  16  scjnare  U'vX't 

The  product  of  1(1  and  11. ((7  is  186.72,  and  the  quotient  arising 
from  dividing'  thi.s  In  tin-  sum  of  150  and  14.7,  or  161.7,  is  about 
llVo  square  ini'hes,  whi(;h  is  the  recjuired  area  of  opening. 


ENGINEERING. 


105 


Divide  this 
(2)  tlie  sine  of 


B.  The  diameter  of  valve,  in  inches,  required,  to  afford  the  neces- 
sary area  of  opening  loith  the  given  lift. 

(rt)  When  the  lift  of  the  valve  is  equal  to  or  less  than  the 
depth  of  the  seat :  Diminish  the  required  area  of  opening  by  the 
product  of  (1)  the  square  of  the  lift,  in  inches  ;  (2)  the  square 
of  the  sine  of  the  angle  of  bevel  of  the  valve  ;  (oj  the  cosine  of 
the  angle  of  bevel  of  the  valve,  and  (4)  3.1416. 
difference  by  the  product  of  (1)  the  lilt  in  inches 
the  angle  of  bevel  of  the  valve,  and  (3)  3.1416. 

(6)  When  the  lift  of  the  valve  is  greater  than  the  depth  of 
the  seat :  Diminish  the  required  area  of  opening  by  the  product 
of  (1)  the  square  of  the  depth  of  seat,  in  inches  ;  (2)  the  square 
of  the  sine  of  the  angle  of  bevel  of  the  valve  ;  (3)  the  cosine  of 
tlie  angle  of  bevel  of  the  valve,  and  (4)3.1416.  Divide  this 
difference  by  3.1416  times  the  sum  of  (1)  the  depth  of  seat  in 
inches,  multiplied  by  the  sine  of  the  angle  of  bevel  of  the  valve, 
and  (2)  the  difference  between  the  lift  and  the  depth  of  seat,  in 
inches. 

A  table  of  sines  and  cosines  of  angles  from  20°  to  50°  will  be 
found  below,  and  an  example  is  appended  in  illustration  of  the 
rules. 


Angle. 

Sine. 

Cosine. 

Angle. 

Sine. 

Cosine. 

20° 

.342 

.940 

36° 

.588 

.809 

21° 

.358 

.934 

37° 

.602 

.799 

22° 

.375 

.927 

38° 

.616 

.788 

23° 

.391 

.921 

39° 

.629 

.777 

24° 

.407 

.914 

40° 

.643 

.766 

25° 

.423 

.906 

41° 

.656 

.755 

26° 

.438 

.899 

42° 

.669 

.743 

27° 

.454 

.891 

43° 

.682 

.731 

28° 

.469 

.883 

44° 

.695 

.719 

29° 

.485 

.875 

45° 

.707 

.707 

30° 

.500 

.866 

46° 

.719 

.695 

31° 

.515 

.857 

47° 

.731 

.682 

32° 

.530 

.848 

48° 

.743 

.669 

33° 

.545 

.839 

49° 

.755 

.656 

34° 

.559 

.829 

50° 

.766 

.643 

35° 

.574 

.819 

Example. — A  safety-valve  has  a  bevel  of  33°,  a  depth  of  seat  of 
i  inch,  and  is  required  to  give  an  area  of  opening  of  2  inches, 
with  a  lift  of  \  inch.      What  should  be  its  diameter? 

Square  of  depth  of  seat 0.0625 

Square  of  sine  of  33' 0.297 

Product 0.019 

Cosine  of  33= 0.839 

Product •- 0.016 


106  BNGINEEUING. 

Product  (broujrlit  forward) 0.016 

Multiply  by i5.1410' 

Product 0.05 

Area  of  opening 2.00 in. 

Subtract 0.05 

DifEerence  is 1.95 

Depth  of  seat 0.25 

Sine  of  33° 0.545 

Their  product 0.136 

Multiply  by 3.141C 

Product 0.427 

Lift 0.50 

Subtract  depth  of  seat 0.25 

The  difierence  is « . .  .0.25 

Multiply  by 3.1416 

And  the  product  is 0.785 

Add 0.427 

1.212 
Now  1.95  divided  by  1.212  gives  the  diameter  of  valve,  1.61 
inches,  nearly.  B. 

V.\LVK,  Safety,  Proportions  of  parts  of. — 1st.  To  find  the  pres- 
sure per  square  inch  (it  which  (Kjimn  caloe  mill  open.  Measure  the 
following  distances  horizontally  from  the  fulcrum  to  (1)  the 
centre  of  the  valve-stem  ;  (2)  the  centre  of  tlie  weight ;  (3)  the 
centre  of  gravity  of  the  lever,  or  the  point  on  whicli  it  will  bal- 
ance if  jilaced  upon  a  knife-edge.  Measure  the  diameter  of  the 
valve,  and  determine  its  area,  eitlier  from  a  table  or  by  multiply, 
ing  the  square   of  tlm  diameter  by  0.7H54.     Find  the   weight  of 

(1)  the  valve;  (2)  the  lever;  (3)  the  ball.  Multiply  (1)  the 
weight  of  the   ball  by  its   liorizontal   distance  from  the  fulcrum  ; 

(2)  the  weiglit  of  the  lever  by  its  horizontal  distance  from  the 
fulcrum  ;  (3)  the  weight  of  th(i  valve  by  its  horizontal  distance 
from  \\\v.  ful(Tum  ;  (4)  tlu;  area  of  the  valve  by  its  horizontal 
distance  from  the  fulcrum.  Add  togetlu'r  thelirst  three  proilucts 
and  divide  the  sum  by  the  fourth  product. 

Hxdinplc. — A  givtMi  safety-valve  has  a  weight  of  50  lbs.  21 
inches  from  th(!  fulcrum,  th(!  lever  weighs  (i  lbs.,  and  its  (•eiitr(^  of 
irravity  is  15  inches  from  the  fulcrum  ;  the  weight  of  i\w  valv(^ 
is  2  lbs.,  and  its  centre  is  4  inches  from  the  fulcrum.  The  dia- 
met(!r  of  tlie  valve  is  2  inches.  At  what  pressure  will  the  valve 
b(!gin  to  riseV 

Scjuarc!  of  diameter 4 

Multiply  by 0.7H5I 

Area  of  valve  in  stpiare  inclies 3.1416 

(1)50  times  24  is  1200  ;  (2)  6  times  15  is  90;  (3)  2  times  4  is 


ENGINEERIXG.  107 

8  ;  (4)  4  times  3.1416  is  12.5G64.  The  sum  of  (1),  (2),  and  (3)  is 
1298,  which  divided  by  12.5604  (the  fourth  product)  is  103.03, 
the  pressure  in  lbs.  per  square  inch  at  which  the  valve  will  open. 

2d.  I'd  find  where  to  place  the  weight  on  a  safety-valce  so  that  it 
shall  open  at  a  given  pressure  of  steam.  Multiply  (1)  the  weight 
of  the  lever  by  the  horizontal  distance  of  its  centre  of  gravity 
from  the  fulcrum  ;  (2)  the  weight  of  the  valve  by  its  horizontal 
distance  from  the  fulcrum  ;  (3)  the  area  of  the  valve  by  the 
pressure  of  steam  in  lbs.  per  square  inch,  and  by  the  horizontal 
distance  of  the  valve  fi'om  the  fulcrum.  Add  together  the  first 
two  products,  subtract  their  sum  from  the  third  product,  and  di- 
vide the  difference  by  the  weight  of  the  ball. 

Example. — The  ball  of  a  safety-valve  weighs  100  lbs.,  the 
lever  weighs  10  lbs.,  the  valve  weighs  2  lbs.,  and  has  a  diameter 
of  3  inches.  The  distance  of  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  lever 
from  the  fulcrum  is  25  inches,  and  the  distance  of  the  centre  of 
the  valve  from  the  fulcrum  is  5  inches.  How  far  from  the  ful- 
crum must  the  valve  be  placed,  in  order  that  the  lever  may  open 
at  a  pressure  of  100  lbs.? 

Area  of  valve,  7.07  square  inches. 

(1)  10  times  25  is  250  ;  (2)  2  times  5  is  10  ;  (3)  the  product  of 
7.07,  100,  and  5,  is  3535.  Adding  togetlier  products  (1)  and  (2), 
we  have  as  their  sum  260  ;  subtracting  this  from  3535,  the  third 
product,  we  have  3275.  Dividing  this  difference  by  100,  the 
weight  of  the  ball,  we  have  32.75,  or  32f  inches  as  the  distance 
from  fulcrum  to  ball. 

To  find  ichat  diameter  a  safety-valve  must  have,  the  other  ixirts  be- 
ing known  to  open  at  a  given  steam  pres.szire.  Multiply  (1)  the  weight 
of  the  ball  by  its  horizontal  distance  from  the  fulcrum;  (2)  the 
weight  of  the  lever  by  the  horizontal  distance  of  its  centre  of 
gravity  from  the  fulcrum  ;  (3)  the  weight  of  the  valve  by  the 
horizontal  distance  of  its  centre  from  the  fulcrum  ;  (4)  the  pres- 
svtre  of  steam  in  pounds  per  square  inch  by  the  horizontal  dis- 
tance of  the  valve  from  the  fulcrum,  and  by  the  number  0.7854. 
Add  together  the  first  three  products,  divide  their  sum  by  the 
fourth  product,  and  take  the  square  root  of  the  quotient. 

Example. — Weight  of  ball,  00  lbs.  ;  lever,  7  lbs.  ;  valve,  3  lbs. 
Distances  from  fulcrum  :  ball,  30  inches  ;  centre  of  gravity  of 
lever,  16  inches  ;  centre  of  valve,  3  inches.  Pressure  of  steam, 
70  lbs.  per  square  inch.  What  should  be  the  diameter  of  the 
valve  ? 

(1)  The  product  of  60  and  30  is  1800  ;  (2)  the  product  of  7  and 
16  is  112  ;  (3)  the  product  of  3  and  3  is  9  ;  (4)  the  product  of  70, 
3,  and  0.7854  is  164.934.  The  sum  of  the  first  three  products, 
1800,  112,  and  9,  is  1921.  Dividing  this  sum  by  164.934  (the 
fourth  product),  we  have  11.647  inches.  The  square  root  of  this 
number  is  3.41  -i-  inches,  which  by  the  rule  is  the  required  dia- 
meter of  the  valve.  B. 

Valve,  To  find  the  angle  of  bevel  of  a. — This  is  the  angle  of 
inclination /c  a,  or  e  d  h,  to  a  vertical  line.  Make  the  following 
measurements :  (1)  greatest  diameter,  g  h,  of  valve,  in  inches  ; 
(2)  least  diameter,  a  h,  of  valve,  in  inches  ;  (3)  depth,  a  k,  of 
valve,  in  inches.     Divide  the  difference  of  the  greatest  and  least 


108 


ENGINEEKING. 


diameters  by  tlie  depth  of  seat.     Find  the  angle  whose  tangent  is 
nearest  this  quotient,  in  the  accompanying  table  of  tangents. 


C  d 

Table  of  Tangents  from  20°  to  50°. 


Example. — The  greatest  and  least  diameter  of  a  valve  are 
4  G-10  and  4  inches,  respectively,  and  the  depth  is  \  inrli.  Wliat 
is  the  bevel  'i 

(Jreati'st  diameter 4.(i 

Least  diameter 4. 


2)0.  (J 

0.5)0.3 

Tangent  of  angl<'  of  incliimtion O.G 

From  tin-  tablf,  it  appears  tliiit  tlic  angii!  corresponding  to  this 
is  nearly  lil  .  1^- 

ValvK,  To   liiid  tlif  arrii  of   (>|iciiiiii,',  in    S(|iiiur    iiiciii'.s,  of   a, 
due  to   a  given    lift. — ('/)   VViicn   ilir    lift    <>f    tin'  vulve  is  equal 


ENGINEERING.  109 

or  to  less  than  the  depth  of  seat  :  Find  the  product  of  (1)  the 
diameter  of  the  valve,  in  inches  ;  (3)  the  lift,  in  inches  ;  (3)  the 
sine  of  the  angle  of  bevel  of  the  valve,  and  (4)  3.1416.  Add  this 
to  the  product  of  (1)  the  square  of  the  lift,  in  inches  ;  (2)  the 
square  of  the  sine  of  angle  of  bevel  of  the  valve  ;  (3)  the  cosine 
of  the  angle  of  bevel  of  the  valve,  and  (4)  3.1416. 

(6)  When  the  lift  of  the  valve  is  greater  than  the  depth  of 
seat :  Find  the  product  of  (1)  the  diameter  of  the  valve,  in 
inches  ;  (2)  the  depth  of  seat,  in  inches  ;  (3)  the  sine  of  the  angle 
of  bevel  of  the  valve,  and  (4)  3.1416.  Find  the  product  of  (1) 
the  square  of  the  depth  of  seat,  in  inches  ;  (2)  the  square  of  the 
sine  of  the  angle  of  bevel  of  valve  ;  (3)  the  cosine  of  the  angle 
of  bevel  of  valve,  and  (4)  3.1416.  Find  the  product  of  (1)  the 
diameter  of  the  valve,  in  inches  ;  (2)  the  difference  between  the 
lift  and  the  depth  of  seat,  in  inches,  and  (3)  3.1416.  Take  the 
sum  of  these  three  products. 

Example. — The  diameter  of  a  valve  is  4  inches,  the  bevel  is  35°, 
and  the  depth  of  seat  ^  of  an  inch.  What  is  the  area  of  open- 
ing for  a  lift  of  f  of  an  inch  ? 

The  product  of  4,  0.25,  0.574  (the  sine  of  35=),  and  31416  is 
1.8. 

The  product  of  the  square  of  0.25,  the  square  of  0.574,  0.819, 
(the  cosine  of  35°),  and  3.1416  is  1.85. 

The  product  of  4,  0.125  (the  diflference  between  the  lift  and 
depth  of  seat),  and  3.1416  is  1.57. 

The  sum  of  1.8,  1.85,  aad  1.57  is  3.42  square  inches,  the  area 
of  opening  required,  B. 


BELTS,  PULLEYS,  AND  SHAFTING. 

Belt-Holes,  Laying  out,  through  floors.— If  a  belt  is  to  be 
carried  from  a  pulley  on  an  overhead  shaft  to  one  on  any  floor 
above,  tlie  distance  from  centre  of  lower  shaft  to  ceiling— under 
side  of  floor — should  be  measured  and  noted  ;  then  the  thickness 
of  floor  ;  next  the  distance  between  top  of  floor  and  centre  of 
upper  shaft.  If  one  pulley  or  shaft  is  directly  over  the  other, 
the  size  of  pulleys  and  width  of  belt  being  known,  you  have  all 
the  data  necessary  if  you  measure  the  distance  of  one  shaft 
from  the  wall  of  building,  which  is  done  by  dropping  a  plummet 
from  centre  of  shaft  or  diameter  of  pulley,  and  measuring  to  the 
wall  from  that  point.  From  these  data,  whether  the  two  shafts 
are  in  the  same  vertical  plane,  whether  the  diameters  of  the  pul- 
leys are  equal,  and  whether  the  belt  is  to  be  carried  through  one, 
two,  three,  or  even  four  floors  or  not,  the  intelligent  mechanic  can 
lay  out  a  diagram  that  will  enable  him  to  cut  his  belt-holes  ac- 
curately. The  diagram  may  be  laid  out  full-size  on  a  swept 
floor,  or,  on  a  reduced  scale,  on  a  board  or  sheet  of  paper.  ]SIea- 
sures  thus  made  can  easily  be  transferred  to  the  floor  through 
which  the  holes  are  to  be  made. 


110  ENGINEERING. 

BELT-LACixa,  Eel-pkin. — A  mill-owner  says :  "  Eel-skins 
make  the  best  possible  strings  for  lacing  belts.  One  lace  will 
outlast  any  belt,  and  will  stand  wear  and  liard  usage  wliere 
hooks  or  any  other  fastenings  fail.  Our  mill  being  on  the  bank 
of  the  river,  we  keep  a  net  set  for  eels,  which,  when  wanted,  are 
taken  out  in  the  morning  and  skinned,  and  the  skins  are  stuck  on 
a  smooth  board.  When  dry,  we  cut  them  in  two  strings,  making 
the  eel-skin,  in  three  hours  from  the  time  the  fish  is  taken  from 
the  water,  travel  in  a  belt." 

Belt-Lacings,  Holes  for. — The  strain  on  belts  is  always  in  the 
direction  of  their  length,  and  therefore  holes  cut  for  the  reception 
of  lacing  slioiild  be  oval  (the  long  diameter  in  line  with  the 
belt).  In  ])utting  or  meeting  belts,  the  crossings  of  the  lacings 
should  be  on  the  outside. 

Belt  passinc;  over  t'wo  Pui^leys,  To  find  the  length  of  a. — 
Measure  the  distance  between  the  centres  of  the  pulleys,  the 
diameters  of  the  pulleys,  and  the  thickness  of  the  belt.  Add  the 
thickness  of  the  belt  to  the  diameter  of  a  pulley,  and  this  gives 
the  effective  diameter.  Half  this  is  the  effective  radius,  and  it 
is  to  be  noted  that  the  effective  radius,  or  tlu'  effective  diameter, 
of  a  pulley  should  generally  be  used  in  all  calculations  relating 
to  belts  and  pulleys.  In  making  such  calculations,  care  must  be 
taken,  also,  to  liave  all  the  dimensions  in  the  same  unit,  feet  or 
inches.     In  general,  it  is  well  to  reduce  all  dimensions  to  feet. 

To  illustrate  the  ])receding  remarks,  suppose  that  the  diame- 
ter of  a  pulley  is  10  inches,  and  that  the  thickness  of  the  belt 
passing  over  it  is  f  of  an  incli.  What  is  the  effective  radius,  in 
feet?  Ati.s.  The  effective  diameter  is  lOg  inches  ;  hence  the  effec- 
tive radius  is  o.^*,;  inches.  5  inches  is  0.417  ft.  ,'',,  of  an  inch  is 
0.010  ft.     Hence  5,=^,;  inches  is  0.433  ft. 

There  are  two  cases  to  be  considered,  one  in  which  the  belt  ia 
crossed,  and  the  other  in  which  it  is  open. 

To  find  the  length  of  a  cronxed  belt  pnssiDf/  orrr  tiro  judlci/s  : 

(1)  Divide  the  sum  of  the  radii  of  the  two  pulleys  by  the  dis- 
tance between  their  centres,  and  lind  from  the  table  of  factors  the 
factor  corres|)onding  to  this  quotient. 

(2)  Multii)ly  the  factor  so  found  by  the  sum  of  the  radii. 

(3)  Multiply  the  sum  of  the  radii  by  the  number  3.141G. 

(4)  Siil)tiart  tins  sijuare  of  the  sum  of  the  radii  from  tlu; 
8(juare  of  the  distance  Ix-twcen  centres,  and  take  the  s(|uare  root 
of  the  remainder.     Multiply  tlie  (juantity  so  obtaiiu'd  liy  2. 

(5)  Take  tlie  sum  of  the  quantities  obtained  by  (2),  (3),  and  (4). 
Krampfr. — Tlu;  radius  of  one  pulley  is  42  inches,  of  the  other 

3(»  ;  tlie  distance  between  centres  of  pulleys  is  12  feet,  and  the 
tliickness  of  tlie  lielt  is  \  of  an  imli  ;  rei|iiiir(l,  the  length  of  tlu^ 
belt. 

'I'iie  efff'ctive  radii  an;  3.51  fi^rt  and  3.01  feet. 

(1)  Sum  of  radii,  0.520.  Distaiwe  betwi-en  centn^s,  12.  Quo- 
tient of  first  (|uantity  divided  by  second,  0.51.  Factor  in  talih: 
I'orrespnnding  lo  this  quotient,  1.141. 

(2)  i.ni  innitii)iied  hy  i\.r,':>,  7.430  t . 

(3)  0.541  multipli.-d  by  3. 1.41(..20.4H3  +  . 


ENGINEERING. 


Ill 


(4)  Square  of  distance  between  centres 144. 

Square  of  sum  of  radii. .      42.51 

Difference 101.49 

Square  root    of  difference,    10.074  +  .     10.074  multiplied  by  2, 
30.148. 

^  (5)  Sum  of  7.439,  20.483.  and  20.148,  48.07  feet,  or  48  feet  and 
U  of  an  inch,  length  of  belt  required. 

Table  of  Factors  for  Determining  the  Length  of  Belts. 


Quotient. 

! 

Factor.      ' 

Quotient. 

Factor. 

0.01 

0.020 

0.35 

0.716 

0.02 

0.040     1 

0.36 

0.737 

0.03 

0.060     i 

0.37 

0.758 

0.04 

0.080     ' 

0.38 

0.780 

0.05 

0.100 

0.39 

0.802 

0.06 

0.120 

0.40 

0.823 

0.07 

0.140 

0.41 

0.845 

0.08 

0.161 

0.42 

0.867 

0.09 

0  180 

0.43 

0.890 

0.10 

0.201 

0.44 

0.912 

0.11 

0.220 

0.45 

0.934 

0.12 

0.241 

!      0.46 

0.956 

0.13 

0.261 

0.47 

0.979 

0.14 

0.281 

0.48 

1.002 

0.15 

0.301 

0.49 

1.025 

0.16 

0  322 

i      0.50 

1047 

0.17 

0.342 

;       0.51 

1.070 

0.18 

0.362 

0.52 

1.094 

0.19 

0.383 

0.53 

1.118 

0.20 

0.403 

0.54 

1.141 

0.21 

0.424 

0.55 

1.165 

0.22 

0.444 

0.56 

1.189 

0.23 

0.464 

i      0.57 

1.214 

0.24 

0.485 

1      0.58 

1.238 

0.25 

0.506 

'      0.59 

1.262 

0.26 

0.527 

0.60 

1.287 

0.27 

0.547 

0.61 

1.312 

0.28 

0.568 

0.62 

1.338 

0.29 

0.589 

.      0.63 

1.364 

0.30 

0.610 

0.64 

1.389 

0.31 

0.631 

0.65 

1.415 

0.32 

0.652 

'      0.66 

1.443 

0.33 

0.673 

i      0.67 

1.469 

0.34 

0.694 

0.68 

1.496 

Quotient. 

Factor. 

0.69 

1.533 

0.70 

1.551 

0.71 

1.580 

0.72 

1.608 

0.78 

1.637 

0.74 

1.666 

0.75 

1.696 

0.76 

1.727 

0.77 

1.758 

0.78 

1.790 

0.79 

1.822 

0.80 

1.855 

!       0.81 

1.888 

;      0.82 

1.923 

'       0.83 

1.958 

I       0.84 

1.995 

0.85 

2.033 

0.86 

2.071 

0.87 

2.111 

0.88 

2.152 

0.89 

2.195 

0.90 

2.240 

0.91 

3.387 

0.92 

2.336 

0.93 

3.389 

0.94 

2.446 

0.95 

2.507 

0.96 

2.574 

0.97 

2.651 

0.98 

2.743 

0.99 

2.859 

1.00 

3.143 

- 

To  find  the  length  of  an  open  belt  passing  orer  tiro  pullei/s  : 
(1)  Divide  the  difference  of  the  radii  by  the  distance  between 


112  ENGINEERING. 

centres,  and  find  fro-.u  the  table  of  factors  the  factor  correspond- 
iiig  to  this  quotient. 

{2)  Multiply  the  factor  so  found  by  the  difference  of  the  radii. 

(3)  Multiply  the  sum  of  the  radii  by  the  number  3.1410. 

(4)  Subtract  the  square  of  the  difference  of  the  radii  from  the 
square  of  the  distance  between  centres,  and  take  the  square  root 
of  the  remainder.     Multiply  the  quantity  so  (obtained  by  2. 

(5)  Take  the  sum  of  the  quantities  obtained  by  (3),  (3),  and  (4). 
It  will  be  observed  that  these  rules  require  only   simple  arith- 
metical operations. 

Example. — Given,  diameter  of  driving-wheel,  36  inches;  of 
driven  wheel,  9  inches  ;  distance  between  centres,  5  feet  ;  thick- 
ness of  belt,  \  of  an  inch  ;  what  is  the  length  of  tlie  bellV 

Effective  radii,  1.505  and  0.3S0  feet.  (1)  Difference  of  radii, 
1.125.  Distance  between  centres,  5.  Quotient,  0.33.  Factor  in 
table  corresponding  to  this  quotient,  0.404.  (3)  0.404  multiplied 
bv  1.135,  0.533.  (3)  Sum  of  radii,  1.885.  1.885  multiplied  by 
3.1416,  5.933. 

(4)  Square  of  distance  between  centres 35. 

Square  of  difference  of  radii 1.366 

Difference 33.734 

Square  root  of  difference,  4.873.  4.873  multiplied  by  3,  9.744. 
(5)  Sum  of  0.533,  5.933,  and  9.744,  16.188  feet,  or  16  feet  2^ 
inches,  length  of  belt.  B. 

Belts,  Power  transmitted  by  leatlier. — By  the  aid  of  the  ac- 
companying tables,  now  ])ubli8h(;d  for  the  first  time,  it  will  be 
easy  for  any  one  to  ascertain  the  amount  of  power  that  can  be 
safely  transmitted  by  good  leather  belts  under  ordinary  circum- 
stances. It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  add  that  the  power  trans- 
mitted by  a  belt  in  any  special  case  can  only  be  ascertained  by 
experiment.  All  that  can  b(!  done  by  the  most  elaborate  rules  is 
to  show  what  power  ought  io  be  transmitted  if  a  belt  is  properly 
arranged.  The  tables  and  accompanying  rules  will  be  useful, 
therefore,  in  calculations  of  the  widih  of  belt  retjuired  to  do  a 
definite  amount  of  work  under  given  circumstanc^^s.  With 
these  preliminary  explanations,  the  use  of  the  tables  will  be 
illustrated. 

I.  Other  tMiifjs  heiiuj  cfiuid,  the  power  trnnstnitted  hi/  a  belt  de- 
pends upon  the  arc  of  raittwt  and  the  xpeed  <>f  the  belt. 

II.  To  find  the  arc  of  contact  between  a  belt  and  a  pulley,  by  the 
aid,  of  the  neeonipanyliKj  table. 

Firnt  \fethod. — .Measure  the  liMigth  of  tin-  portion  of  th(^  cir- 
ciiiiifcri'iicc  of  tin;  ])ii]lcy  that  is  in  contact  with  the  belt,  and 
tbe  diamclcr  of  the  pulh^y.  Divide;  the  first  measurement  by  the 
radius  of  the  ])ulley,  which  gives  the  length  of  the  arc  of  contact 
for  a  circle  wliose  radius  is  I.  Mud  tlic  nuinbi-r  nearest  to  this 
in  the  column  of  t!ie  talile  liiMdrd  "  i>c'iii:tli  of  arc  for  a  radius 
of  1,"  and  till-  rc(juirrd  imglc  will  i)r  found  in  tlii;  same  liori- 
zo.ital  lint' of  tin;  next  column,  to  the  UdV,  Invaded  "  Arc  of  con- 
tact. " 


ENGINEERING. 


113 


lule  for  Finding  the  Are  of  Contact  of  a  Belt  loith  a  Pulley. 


El 

Both  pulleys,  crossed  belt,  and 
large  pulley,  open  belt. 

Small  pulley,  open  belt. 

< 

z 

O 

Arc  of  contact. 

Length  of  arc  for 
a  radius  of  1. 

Arc  of  contact. 

Length  of  arc  for 
a  radius  of  1. 

0.00 

180° 

3.142 

180° 

3.142 

.01 

181" 

3.162 

179° 

3.122 

.02 

182° 

3.182 

178° 

3.102 

.03 

183° 

3.202 

177° 

3.082 

.04 

185° 

3.222 

175° 

3.062 

.05 

186° 

3.242 

174° 

3.042 

.06 

187° 

3.262 

173° 

3.022 

.07 

188° 

3.282 

172° 

3.002 

.08 

189° 

3.303 

171° 

2.981 

.09 

190° 

3.322 

170° 

2.962 

.10 

192° 

3.343 

168° 

2.941 

.11 

193° 

3.362 

167° 

2.922 

.12 

194° 

3.383 

166° 

2.901 

.13 

195° 

3.403 

165° 

2.881 

.14 

196° 

3.423 

164° 

2.861 

.15 

197° 

3.443 

163° 

2.841 

.16 

198° 

3.464 

162° 

2.820 

.17 

200° 

3.484 

160° 

2.800 

.18 

201° 

3.504 

159° 

2.780 

.19 

202° 

3.525 

158° 

2.759 

.20 

203° 

3.545 

157° 

2.739 

.21 

204° 

3.566 

156° 

2.718 

.22 

205° 

3.586 

155° 

2.698 

.23 

207° 

3.606 

153° 

2.678 

.24 

208° 

3.627 

152° 

2.657 

.25 

209° 

3.648 

151° 

2.636 

.26 

210° 

3.669 

150° 

2.615 

.27 

211° 

3.689 

149° 

2.595 

.28 

213° 

3.710 

147° 

2.574 

.29 

214° 

3.731 

146° 

2.553 

.30 

215° 

3.752 

145° 

2.532 

.31 

216° 

3.773 

144° 

2.511 

.32 

217° 

3.794 

143° 

2.490 

.33 

219° 

3.S15 

141° 

2.469 

.34 

220° 

3.836 

140° 

2.448 

.35 

221° 

3.858 

139° 

2.426 

.36 

222° 

3.879 

138° 

2.405 

.37 

223° 

3.900 

137° 

2.384 

.38 

225° 

3.922 

135° 

2.362 

.39 

226° 

3.944 

134° 

2.340 

.40 

227° 

3.965 

133° 

2.319 

.41 

228° 

3.987 

132° 

2.297 

.43 

230° 

4.009 

130° 

2.275 

.43 

231° 

4.032 

129° 

2.252 

.44 

232° 

4.054 

128° 

2.230 

.45 

234° 

4.076 

126° 

2.208 

.46 

235° 

4.098 

125° 

2.186 

.47 

2:^6° 

4.121 

124° 

2.163 

.48 

237° 

4.144 

12:}° 

2.140 

.49 

239° 

4  167 

121° 

2.117 

.50 

240° 

4.189 

120° 

2.095 

114 


ENGINEEKING. 


Table  for  Finding  the  Arc  of  Contact  of  a  Belt  tcitJi  a  Pulley. 

(Continued.) 


^ 

Both  pulleys,  crossed  belt,  and 
large  pulley,  open  belt. 

Small  pullej%  open  belt. 

1  CONSTAK 

Arc  of  contact. 

Length  of  arc  for 
a  radius  of  1 . 

Arc  of  contact. 

Length  of  arc  tt 
a  radius  of  1. 

.51 

241° 

4.212 

119° 

2.072 

.52 

243° 

4.236 

117° 

2.048 

.53 

244° 

4.260 

116° 

2.0^ 

.54 

245° 

4.283 

115° 

2.001 

.55 

247° 

4.307 

113° 

1.977 

.56 

248° 

4.331 

112° 

1.953 

.57 

250° 

4.356 

110° 

1.928 

.58 

251° 

4.380 

109° 

1.904 

.59 

252° 

4.404 

108° 

1.880 

.60 

254° 

4.429 

106° 

1.855 

.61 

255° 

4.454 

105° 

1.830 

.62 

257° 

4.480 

103° 

1.804 

.63 

258° 

4.506 

102° 

1.778 

.64 

260° 

4.531 

100° 

1.753 

.65 

261° 

4.557 

99° 

1.727 

.66 

263° 

4.585 

97° 

1.699 

.67 

264° 

4.611 

%° 

1.673 

.68 

266° 

4.638 

94° 

l.WO 

.69 

267° 

4. 065 

93° 

1.G19 

.70 

269° 

4.693 

91° 

1.5'Jl 

.71 

271° 

4.722 

89° 

1.562 

.72 

273° 

4. 750 

88° 

l.o:i4 

.73 

27'1° 

4.779 

86° 

1..505 

.74 

275° 

4.808 

85° 

1.476 

.75 

277° 

4.8:^8 

83° 

1.446 

.76 

270° 

4.86«J 

81° 

1.415 

.77 

281° 

4.900 

79° 

1.384 

.78 

283° 

4.932 

77° 

1.3.->2 

.79 

284° 

4.9&1 

76° 

1.320 

.80 

286° 

4.9!>7 

74° 

1.387 

.81 

288° 

B.CCiO 

72° 

1.2.54 

.82 

290° 

5.(Hi5 

70° 

1.319 

83 

292° 

5.KX) 

68° 

I.IM 

.84 

294° 

5.137 

6<i° 

1.147 

.85 

296° 

5.174 

M° 

1.110 

.86 

299° 

5.213 

61° 

1  (171 

.87 

801O 

5.2.'>3 

59° 

1  ();il 

.88 

808° 

6.294 

57° 

(1  '.190 

.89 

306° 

5..S:}7 

54° 

0.9-17 

.90 

308° 

5.382 

.'J2° 

0.902 

91 

311° 

5.429 

49° 

0.8.-)5 

.92 

314° 

5.478 

46° 

0.8(16 

.98 

817° 

5.581 

48° 

o.7.'>:i 

.94 

820° 

5.588 

40° 

0.(i9C> 

.95 

824° 

5.(M9 

:«i° 

(t.(kJ5 

.96 

888° 

5.716 

32° 

()..")C)8 

.97 

832° 

5.793 

28° 

0.491 

.98 

837° 

5.885 

iSl" 

0:VM< 

.99 

844° 

li.OOl 

1(1" 

(l.-JKJ 

1.00 

aio° 

6.284 

(I" 

0  (KM) 

ENGLXEERIXG.  115 

Example. — Suppose  the  length  of  tlie  circumference  of  a  pul- 
ley in  contact  with  a  belt  is  8A  feet,  and  the  diameter  of  the 
pulley  is  4  feet.  The  quotient  arising  from  dividing  8^  by  2  (the 
radius  of  the  pulley) is  4.25,  and  the  number  in  the  table  nearest 
to  this  is  4.26,  showing  that  the  required  arc  of  contact  is  about 
244°. 

[It  is  to  be  noted  that,  in  calculations  of  this  kind,  the  effective 
radius  of  the  pulley  should  be  used  (see  page  110),  and  all  dimen- 
sions must  be  referred  to  the  same  unit  of  measurement.] 

Second  Method. — Measure  the  effective  diameters  of  both  pul- 
leys, and  the  distance  between  their  centres.  There  are  two 
cases  to  be  considered  : 

(a)  To  find  the  arc  of  contact  for  a  crossed  belt. 

Divide  the  sum  of  the  radii  of  the  two  pulleys  by  the  distance 
tween  their  centres  ;  find  in  the  column  of  constants  the  nearest 
number  to  the  quotient,  and  pick  out  the  corresponding  angle. 

Example. — Diameter  of  driven  pulley,  20  inches  ;  of  driving 
pulley,  24  ;  distance  between  centres,  8  feet.  What  is  the  arc  of 
contact  on  each  pulley  of  a  crossed  belt  passing  over  them  ?  Sum 
of  radii,  1.8333  feet.  1.8333  divided  by  8  is  0.23,  nearly.  From 
the  table,  it  appears  that  the  angle  required  is  207\ 

(b)  To  find  the  arc  of  contact  for  an  open  belt. 

Divide  the  difference  of  the  radii  of  the  two  pulleys  by  the 
distance  between  their  centres,  and  find  the  angles  corresponding 
to  the  constant  nearest  to  the  quotient,  in  the  table. 

Example. — In  the  case  of  an  open  belt  passing  over  two  pul- 
leys, the  following  dimensions  are  given  :  Diameter  of  driving 
pulley  is  5.25  feet;  diameter  of  driven  pulley  is  3.5  feet;  dis- 
tance between  centres  is  9  feet.  The  difference  of  radii  (0.875)  di- 
vided by  9  is  0.097-]-.  Neare.st  constant  in  table,  0.1,  correspond- 
ing to  an  angle  of  contact  of  192'  on  the  driving,  and  168°  on  the 
driven  pulley. 

[These  rules  are  founded  on  the  assumption  that  the  belt  is 
drawn  perfectly  tight  between  the  pulleys.  Where  there  is  much 
deviation  from  this,  in  practice,  it  is  better  to  emjjloy  the  first 
method.] 

III.   To  find  the  speed  of  a  helt,  infect,  per  minute. 

Multiply  the  diameter  of  either  imlley,  in  feet,  by  3.1416  times 
the  number  of  revolutions  that  it  makes  per  minute. 

Example.— \  belt  passes  over  a  pulley  that  is  3  feet  in  diame- 
ter, and  makes  200  revolutions  a  minute".  The  speed  of  the  belt 
is  the  product  of  3,  3.1416,  and  200,  or  about  1885  feet  per 
minute. 

ly.  To  find  the  potcer  that  can  he  safely  transmitted  by  a  good 
leather  belt  of  given  width,  passing  over  smooth  iron  jniUeys,  and 
running  at  a  given  speed,  the  arc  of  contact  beinq  als',  given. 

This  IS  determined  by  means  of  the  second  table  Find  the 
horse-power  for  a  belt  one  inch  in  width,  for  the  nearest  arc  of 
contact  in  the  table,  and  the  nearest  speed  of  belt,  and  multinlv 
this  by  the  width  of  the  belt.  If  the  belt  is  open,  and  the  pul- 
leys have  different  diameters,  take  the  angle  of  contact  made  by 
the  belt  with  the  smaller  pulley. 


116 


ENGINEERING. 


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118 


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ENGINEERING. 


119 


Example. — What  horse-power  can  be  transmitted  by  a  leather 
belt  10  inches  wide,  making  an  angle  of  contact  of  80'  with  the 
smaller  of  the  two  pulleys  over  which  it  passes,  and  having  a  speed 
of  2400  feet  per  minute?  Ans. — Horse-power  for  a  belt  1  inch 
wide  and  2000  feet  speed  is  1.802  ;  horse-power  for  a  belt  1  inch 
wide  and  400  feet  speed  is  0.3G0  ;  therefore,  by  addition,  horse- 
power of  1  inch  belt  for  2400  feet  speed  is  2.162;"  and  for  10  horse- 
power, 10  times  2.162,  or  21.62. 

V.  2'f  find  the  icidth  of  belt  necessary  to  transmit  a  ffiven, 
amount  of  poicer  for  a  given  are  of  contact  and  given  speed  in 
feet  per  minute. 

Find  the  power  transmitted  by  a  belt  1  inch  wide,  and  divide 
the  given  power  by  this  amount. 

Example. — An  open  belt  passes  over  two  pulleys  having  dia- 
meters of  4  and  6  feet  respectively,  and  the  former  makes  300 
revolutions  a  minute.  The  distance  between  the  centres  of  the 
pulleys  is  15  feet.  What  should  be  the  width  of  a  belt  to  trans- 
mit 50  horse-power  under  these  circumstances  ?  Speed  of  belt 
in  feet  per  minute,  3770  ;  arc  of  contact  of  belt  Avith  smaller 
pulley,  172^  ;  horse-iX)wer  transmitted  by  a  belt  1  inch  wide, 
under  conditions  in  table  nearest  to  those  determined  above  {i.e. , 
for  arc  of  contact  of  170",  and  speed  of  3800),  5.488.  Required 
width  of  belt,  50  divided  by  5.488,  or  a  little  over  9  inches. 

VI.  In  the  use  of  a  leather  belt,  it  is  best  to  run  it  with  the 
grain  side  next  to  the  pulleys,  or  in  exactly  the  opposite  way 
from  that  in  which  the  hide  was  worn  by  the  animal  that  was 
the  original  proprietor  of  the  leather. 

VII.  Lace-leather  is  better  than  hooks  for  fastening  the  ends 
of  a  belt  togetlier  ;  and  a  still  better  method,  after  a  belt  has  be- 
come sufficiently  stretched  by  use,  is  to  rivet  the  ends  together 
with  long  laps.  In  lacing  a  belt  of  any  considerable  size,  make 
two  rows  of  holes  in  each  belt  end,  and"  put  in  double  lacing. 

VIII.  A  belt  that  is  made  of  good  material,  and  is  of  ample 
size,  will  last  for  many  years,  if  kept  clean,  and  prevented  from 
becoming  dry  and  hard  by  the  use  of  neat's-foot  oil.  It  is  poor 
economy  to  buy  a  belt  whose  chief  recommendation  is  its  small 
first  cost.  It  is  also  a  bad  plan  to  use  a  belt  that  is  just  suflicient 
to  transmit  the  power  when  Very  tightly  strained.  B. 


CORNER-TURNED  BELT. 


Belts,  Corner-turned,  Device  for.— The  two  shafts  placed  at 
right  angles,  as  shown  in  the  engraving,  carry  the  belt  from  A  or 


120 


ENGINEERING. 


B,  passing  around  two  flanged  pulleys  or  guides,  C,  turning  loose- 
ly on  a  fixed  upright  shaft,  and  sustained  in  position  bj^  a  collar 
under  the  hub  of  each.  It  is  possible  to  run  pulleys  by  this  de- 
vice which  not  only  have  varying  diameters,  but  the  shafts  of 
which  are  on  different  levels  ;  but  the  results  are  not  so  good, 
owing  to  unequal  strain  on  the  belt.  It  is  better  to  confine  this 
method  to  shafts  on  the  same  level,  and  to  pulleys  of  equal  dia- 
meter, and  the  useful  limit  of  angle  of  shafts  is  that  of  45°,  or 
less.  A  greater  or  more  obtuse  angle  is  better  run  by  means  of 
guides  on  two  uprights. 

Belts,  Coupling. — In  Fig.  1,  A,  B,  C,  and  D  are  pieces  of  No. 
16  sheet-iron,  riveted  to  the  ends  of  the  belt ;  E  E  are  hooks, 
shown  in  the  natural  size  in  Fig.  2 ,  riveted  to  B.     After  the  belt 


■lUI'I.lNC    r.Kl.TS. 


is  laid  over  tin;  pulleys,  tin;  hooks,  F  and  (J,  of  the  lever,  sliown 
in  Fig.  8,  are  placed  in  the  holes  at  C  and  D.  Now  the  two  ends 
of  the  belt  are  drawn  together  by  the  lever,  H,  and  the  hooks. 
E,  are  i)ut  in  their  places  at  A.  Then  the  lever  is  taken  out, 
leaving  the  joint  finished.  By  this  nietliod,  two  men  can  set  and 
couple  a  belt  in  the  least  possible  time,  obtaining  an  eff«;ctual 
joint,  which  will  never  allow  the  belt  to  run  out  of  true,  or  to  re- 
verse. 

Belts,  Increasing  the  conveying  fore*-  of. — Adding  to  the  width 
of  a  l)e.lt  and  of  the  faces  of  the  jiiilleys  increases  immensely  the 
])ower  of  conveying  force.  A  wide  belt  is  always  better  than  a 
narrow  one,  strained  to  its  utmost  ca|)acity. 

Bklts,  Mending. — Lay  llii'  two  I'nds  of  the  l^(;lt  exactly  even, 
witli  tlie  insi(h'S  together,  and  piincli  one  straiglit  row  of  holes 
across  tlie  end,  driving  the  piincli  through  both  i)leceH  so  that  the 


ENGINEERING.  121 

holes  may  correspond.  Now  take  your  lace,  pointed  at  both 
ends,  and  pass  the  points  in  opposite  directions  through  the  first 
hole,  still  keeping  the  two  ends  of  the  belt  together  as  when 
punched,  and  draw  the  loop  tight,  observing  to  keep  the  ends  of 
equal  length.  Pass  the  points  through  the  second  hole,  and  so 
proceed  to  the  last  ;  then  tie  the  ends  over  the  edge  of  the  belt, 
and  the  job  is  done.  A  belt  can  thus  be  mended  in  half  the  time 
and  with  half  the  length  of  lacing  required  in  the  usual  way  ;  and 
wlien  the  belt  is  subjected  to  heavy  strains  or  slipping,  it  will 
wear  ten  times  as  long,  as  the  lace  never  touches  the  pulley- 
faces.  Of  course  the  plan  is  not  applicable  when  both  sides  of  a 
belt  run  over  pulleys,  nor  when  the  projecting  ends  would  strike 
any  thing  in  their  track. 

Belts,  Oiling. — The  best  mode  of  oiling  a  belt  is  to  take  it 
from  the  pulleys,  and  immerse  it  in  a  warm  solution  of  tallow  and 
oil  ;  after  allowing  it  to  remain  a  few  moments,  the  belt  should 
be  immersed  in  water  heated  to  100°  Fahr.,  and  instantly  removed. 
This  will  drive  the  oil  and  tallow  all  in,  and  at  the  same  time 
properly  temper  the  leather. 

Belts,  Rubber,  To  prevent,  slipping  on  pulleys. — Chalk  the 
pulley  when  slipping  occurs.  The  presumption  is,  however,  that 
the  belt  is  either  too  narrow  or  too  loose. 

Belts,  Splicing  large. — Cut  your  belt  perfectly  square  on  the 
ends  and  to  the  proper  length  ;  then  cut  a  piece  of  belt  of  the 
same  width  and  thickness,  about  3  feet  long.  Bring  the  ends  of 
the  belt  together,  and  put  the  short  piece  on  the  back  of  the 
joint,  or  outside,  and  bolt  the  belt  and  piece  together  with  what 
are  known  as  elevator- bolts,  used  for  fastening  the  buckets  to 
elevator-bands_.  The  tools  required  are  a  brace  and  bit  to  bore 
the  holes,  and  a  small  pair  of  blacksmith's  tongs  to  tighten  up  the 
nuts  with. 

Belts,  Testing  leather  for. — A.  cutting  of  the  material  about 
0.03  of  an  inch  in  thickness  is  placed  in  strong  vinegar.  If  the 
leather  has  been  thoroughly  acted  upon  by  the  tanning,  and  is 
lience  of  good  quality,  it  will  remain,  for  months  even,  immersed 
without  alteration,  simply  becoming  a  little  darker  in  color.  But, 
on  the  contrary,  if  not  well  impregnated  by  the  tannin,  the 
fibres  will  quickly  swell,  and,  after  a  short  period,  become  trans- 
formed into  a  gelatinous  mass. 

Belts,  To  lay  out  quarter-twist. — To  make  holes  through 
floors  for  the  belts,  lay  out  on  a  floor  with  chalk-line  and  train 
two  views  of  the  pulley,  or  by  scale  on  paper  as  shown  in  the  an- 
nexed diagram.  B  is  the  belt  running  in  the  direction  of  the 
arrow  on  the  lower  pulley,  and  C  is  the  belt  running  in  the 
opposite  direction.  Therefore,  drop  a  plumb-line,  representing 
the  perpendiculars,  B  and  C,  and  draw  the  diagonals  governed  by 
the  diameters  of  the  pulleys,  marking  the  distances  a  b  and  c  d 
on  the  floor.  Now,  drop  a  plumb-line  from  each  side  of  the  cen- 
tre of  face  of  upper  pulley  to  the  floor,  and  from  one  point,  c, 


122  EXGIXEERIXG. 

thus  found,  lay  off  the  distance  a  h,  in  a  line  parallel  with  the 
upper  shaft,  and  from  the  point  n  in  the  distance,  f  d,  parallel 


T.AYIMi    OIT   l^lAltTKI!-TWI>T   BEIT-"   Tllltorull    FI.OOIIS. 


with  the  lower  shaft.     ThoHc  points  are  tin-  places  at  which  the 
hok'H  should  be  cut. 

FuKTioN  ANi")  LrnurcANTs. — Whenever  one  surface  moves 
uj)on  anotlirr,  tlic  roii^h  and  iiri)jccfinjf  ])oints  of  tlic  f wo  sur- 
face's (wliich  always  exist,  even  in  tin-  siiioofhcst  surfaces)  op- 
pose resistiuice  to  the  motion,  and  tliis  resistance  is  called  fric- 
tion. 


ENGINEERING.  "         123 

The  coefficient  of  friction  is  a  quantity  expressing  the  ratio  of 
the  friction  to  the  pressure.  For  instance,  if  the  resistance  to 
moving  one  piece  of  metal  on  another  is  one  fifth  of  the  weight  of 
the  moving  body,  the  coefficient  of  friction  in  this  case  is  one 
fiftli,  or  0.2.  Hence,  knowing  the  coefficient  of  friction,  in  any 
given  instance,  and  the  weight  of  the  body  causing  the  resist- 
ance, the  amount  of  friction  is  foiind  by  multiplying  these  two 
quantities  together. 

The  work  due  to  or  lost  on  account  of  friction,  in  any  given 
time,  is  found  by  multiplying  the  amount  of  friction  of  the  moving 
body  by  the  space  passed  through  in  the  given  time.  It  is  cus- 
tomary to  estimate  the  amount  of  friction  in  pounds,  to  niake  the 
given  time  one  minute,  and  to  measure  the  distance  passed 
through  in  that  time  in  feet.  The  result  obtained  will  then  ex- 
press the  number  of  foot-pounds  of  work  performed  per  minute 
in  overcoming  friction,  and  this  can  readily  be  reduced  to  horse- 
power, or  any  other  desired  unit  of  work.  It  is  important  to 
maintain  the  distinction  between  the  amount  of  friction  and  the 
work  of  friction. 

The  experiments  of  Coulomb  and  Morin  have  demonstrated 
the  following  facts  in  regard  to  friction  : 

That  it  is  proportional  to  the  pressure. 

With  some  limitations,  that  it  is  independent  of  the  area  of  the 
surface  pressed,  and  independent  of  the  velocity  of  motion. 

The  limitations  are,  that  the  pressure  should  not  be  so  great  as 
to  abrade  or  wear  away  the  surface  rapidly,  in  which  case  the 
friction  does  not  follow  the  laws  enunciated  above  ;  also,  that 
the  velocity  of  motion  shall  not  be  so  great  as  to  expel  the  lubri- 
cant. It  is  found,  for  instance,  in  the  case  of  the  journals  of  car- 
axles,  that  they  require  to  be  enlarged  as  the  speed  increases,  in 
order  to  prevent  the  expulsion  of  the  lubricant.  The  actual  bear- 
ing surface  of  a  journal  is  usually  considered  to  be  the  projected 
area  of  that  journal,  or  the  product  of  the  length  multiplied  by 
the  diameter.  For  instance,  if  a  journal  is  4  inches  in  cliameter 
and  7  inches  long,  the  bearing  surface  is  28  square  inches. 

The  pressure  per  square  inch  on  the  bearing  surface  should 
not  exceed  the  folloAving  limits  : 

Velocity  of  periphery  Limiting  pressure  per  sq.  in. 

of  journal.  of  Dearing  surface. 

1  foot  per  second 382  lbs. 

2i  feet  per  second 224     " 

5  feet  per  second 140     " 

It  is  well  known  that  one  of  the  most  common  expedients  for  re- 
ducing the  friction  between  two  rubbing  surfaces  is  to  interpose 
some  lubricant,  which  seems  to  form  a  coating  to  the  projecting 
points,  making  the  whole  surface  more  continuous,  and  thus  les- 
sening the  resistance.  At  very  low  pressures  and  velocities  the 
viscosity  of  the  lubricant  occasionally  causes  the  resistance  to  be 
increased  instead  of  lessened,  but  in  general  the  effect  of  an  un- 
guent is  to  decrease  the  friction  in  quite  a  large  ratio.  Careful 
experiments  have  Ifeen  made  with  regard  to  the  friction  between 
two  surfaces  when  they  were  perfectly  dry  and  clean,  and  when 


124 


ENGINEERING. 


different  liTbricants  were  used.  In  this  manner  it  has  been  found 
tliat  good  oil,  such  as  olive-oil,  is  one  of  the  best  lubricants  ;  that 
lard  is  better  than  tallow,  and  that  the  use  of  water,  instead  of 
lessening  the  friction,  generally  increases  it.  Experiments  upon 
the  manner  of  applying  the  lubricant  show  that  there  is  a  great 
advantage  in  a  continual  application,  so  as  to  keep  a  film  con- 
stantly interposed  between  the  rubbing  surfaces,  over  the  case  in 
which  the  surfaces  are  merely  kept  slightly  greasy.  Below  are 
given  mean  values  for  the  coefficient  of  friction,  in  cases  arising 
from  the  sliding  of  one  plane  surface  upon  another,  the  surfaces 
being  supposed  to  be  true,  and,  in  common  language,  smooth  : 


NATrrEE   OP   THE   SLIDING 
8UKFACE. 


Wood  on  wood. 
Wood  on  metal 
Metal  on  metal 


3 

o 


0.38 
0.41 
0.18 


Well  lubricated  with 


^ 

p 


0.811 


CO 

o 
p 

•a 


0.144 

0.20 

0.197 


0.0G4 
O.OTl 


p, 

«— • 
o 


p 


0.0710.066 


0.079 
0.092 


0.076 
0.075 


P    Q, 

O  P 

:  3 

:  ^ 

:  w 

•  5" 

:  3 


0.070 


Tn  the  case  of  journals,  the  coefficient  of  friction  is  generally 
much  less  than  for  iihine  surfaces.  Mean  values  of  this  coeffi- 
cient, both  for  wood  and  metals,  vary  from  0.  l.>,  when  the  jour- 
nal is  only  slightly  unctuous,  to  0.05,  when  there  is  a  continual 
8U[  pl.V  '^f  the  lubricant.  In  regard  to  journal-friction,  the  amount 
is  independent  of  the  diameter  of  the  journal,  but  the  work  re- 
quired to  ovi-rcomo  frictiou  will  of  course;  be  greater  with  a  largo 
tlian  with  a  small  journal,  because  the  distance  passed  through 
by  the  periplu^ry  of  the  journal  in  a  given  time  will  be  greater  in 
the  former  cnse.  ^• 

liKi/rs,  Testing  vulcanized  rubber  for.— These  trials  consist  in 
examining  the  comparative  degrees  of  elasticity  and  tenacity. 
Tlie  manner  in  whlcli  they  are  conducted  in  the  French  navy  ap- 
pears i)ractical  and  easily  followed.  Tiie  first  test  consists  in  cut- 
ting from  the  sheets  saTn])les,  which  are  left  in  a  steam-boiler 
under  a  pressure  of  5  atmospheres  for  48  hours.  At  the  end  of 
this  time,  the  pieces  shoulil  not  have  lost  thisir  elasticity.  The 
s])eciineiis  may  theu  be  i)la<-ed  cm  the  grating  of  a  valve  box,  un- 
d(!r  a  pressure  from  above  of  85.5  ihs.  per  .s(|uiire  inch,  and  should 
witlistand  9100  strokes  at  the  rate  of  1(»0  jier  minute.  Specimens 
not  l)oiled  should  withstand  17.10;)  strokes.  Thongs  of  rubber 
boiled,  and  having  a  section  O.ti  inch  sipuire  and  a  length  of  8 
inches,  (ixed  between  sujjports  an<l  elonga#d  :i.9  inches,  should 
resist,  witliout    breaking,   a    further   ehmgation   of  8  inches,  re- 


ENGINEERING.  125 

peated  22  times  a  minute  for  24  hours.  Thongs  not  boiled,  under 
the  same  conditions,  should  resist  for  100  hours.  These  extra 
elongations  may  be  easily  made  by  a  wheel,  to  the  periphery  of 
which  one  end  of  the  thong  is  fastened,  while  the  other  extremity 
may  be  attached  to  a  support.  By  turning  the  wheel,  any  deter- 
mined elongation  may  be  given  at  the  rate  of  from  20  to  25  times 
per  minute.  Under  the  above  conditions,  bands  of  first  quality 
rubber,  perfectly  pure  and  well  vulcanized,  break  after  180  or  200 
elongations  of  8  times  the  initial  length.  Bands  cut  from  pure 
rubber,  but  of  secondary  quality,  break  after  50  or  60  elongations. 
Inferior  caoutchouc,  containing  mineral  matters  or  residue  of  old 
vulcanized  rubber,  gives  no  results  at  all. 

M.  Ogier  has  investigated  the  properties  of  rubber  belts  made 
of  repeated  layers  of  cloth  covered  with  prepared  rubber.  Through 
the  adhesive  nature  of  the  caoutchouc,  the  superposed  tissues 
form,  after  vulcanization,  a  homogeneous  substance,  comparable, 
in  M.  Ogier's  opinion,  to  the  best  curried  leather.  His  experi- 
ments, in  order  to  obtain  the  coefficient  of  friction  of  these  belts  on 
cast-iron  pulleys,  give  us  results  varying  from  0.42  to  0.84,  as 
against  the  coefficient  for  leather,  0.28.  The  minimum  value  cor- 
responds to  canvas  and  rubber  belts  Avithout  an  exterior  rubber 
coating.  On  pulleys  of  various  forms,  the  maximum  value  of  the 
coefficient  of  friction  was  found  on  tliose  slightly  convex  and  pre- 
senting a  roughly  turned  surface,  this  result  being  inverse  to  that 
obtained  with  leather  belts.  Similarly  the  presence  of  fatty 
bodies  has  an  opposite  action  on  the  cloth  and  rubber  belts  to  that 
which  it  has  on-  leather.  On  covering  the  former  with  a  light 
varnish  of  half  olive-oil  and  half  tallow,  the  adhesion  was  found 
to  be  consideraldy  augmented.  (1)  The  resistance  to  traction  of 
rubber  and  canvas  belts  per  square  millimeter  (0.0009  square  inch) 
of  section,  is  at  least  equal  to  that  of  leather  belts.  (2)  This  re- 
sistance per  square  millimeter  is  independent  of  dimensions — 
length,  breadth,  or  thickness.  Such  is  not  the  case  with  leather 
belts,  and  therefore  preference  should  be  given  to  rubber  belting 
whenever  the  conditions  of  the  power  to  be  transmitted  necessi- 
tate the  employment  of  very  long,  very  wide,  and  very  thick 
belts.  (3)  From  two  trials  it  appears  that"the  external  covering  of 
caoutchouc  adds  nothing  to  the  resistance,  and  hence  it  is  advan- 
tageous to  use  covered  belts  which,  at  equal  weights  and  prices, 
give  a  superior  resistance.  (4)  Under  the  same  weight,  the  elastic 
elongation  of  leather  belts  is  double  that  of  rubber  ones.  The 
permanent  elongation,  under  a  change  of  0.55  pound  per  square 
millimeter,  reached  2  per  cent  in  the  former  and  nothing  in  the 
latter. 

Belts,  To  prevent  gnawing  of,  by  rats. — Anoint  with  castor- 
oil. 

Belt-Tighteners,  To  place. — The  loss  of  power  occasioned  by 
the  use  of  a  tightener,  is  the  power  required  to  bend  the  belt  under 
that  pulley  and  to  drive  the  pulley.  By  placing  the  tightener 
near  the  smaller  pulley  of  two  of  unequal  size,  there  is  a  greater 
loss  than  when  it  is  close  to  the  larger,  since  the  belt  requires  to 
be  more  bent  in  the  former  case.     The  best  place,  therefore,  to 


126 


ENGINE  EKING. 


put  a  tightener,  is  as  close  to  the  larger  pulley  as  it  can  be  ar- 
ranged to  have  it  work  satisfactorily. 


UNIVERSAL  POINT  FOR  BOKING-TOOL. 

Hangers,  Securing. — If  it  sliould  be  required  to  place  a  hanger 
between  tiooring-l)ciims,  the  Hoor  to  which  it  is  attached  sliould 
be  strengthened  witli  a  generous  ])icc('  of  ])lank.  For  securing 
hangers,  lag-screws  are  superior  to  bolts  witli  nuts,  where  there 
is  sufficient  thickness  of  wood.  A  wooden  straiglit-edge,  reach- 
ing from  on(!  bearing  to  another,  is  Ijetter  for  leveling  hangers 
and  boxes  tliau  a  twine,  wliidi  will  sag  nior(>  or  less.  Some  use 
short  cylinders  of  iron  turned  to  fit  the  box,  and  liaving  a  central 
hole  drilled  longitudinally  through  them.  Tliis  is  an  excellent 
l)lan,  as  tlie  eye  nuiy  sight  through,  ora  string  be  ])assed  through 
to  determine  the  level.  Where  holes  are  to  be  bored  through  the 
floor  clo.se  to  a  wall,  post,  or  other  vertical  obstruction,  a  handy 
tool,  similar  to  tliat  shown  in  the  cut,  conu»s  into  ])lay.  It  is  easi- 
ly forgi^d,  and  need  not  be  finished  with  tli<^  elegance  of  contour 
shown.  A  is  one  of  the  yokes,  and  B  the  cross  ;  they  art^  seisn 
united  at  C.  'i'he  shaidv  of  out'  yoke  has  a  tapering  s<|uar(!  hole 
to  receive  a  bit  or  auger,  and  tin;  other  is  a  ta])ering  stjuare  shank 
to  fit  a  stock  of  the  bit-l)race.  Tlie  device  is  "  a  universal  joint," 
and  can  be  readily  worked  at  an  anglt!  of  4/)^. 

IIo'P  liKAUiNc;  ;\i,AiiM.  —  A  cylindrical  box,  A,  is  jji-ovidrd  with 
a  jjerforated  bottom,  H,  and  i)laced  directly  over  the  journal. 
'i'he  box  is  filled  wilh  a  pre])ared  grease  which  nudts  at  a  certain 
trmperatnre,  to  which  it  must  be  raised  by  the  shaft  becoming 
hot.      As  till-  coiriiiciiinil  iii|Mi(it'M  iind  c■^;(•ll|les  through  tln'  |p('rforii 


ENGINEERING. 


127 


tions,  a  disk,  (",  which  rests  thereon,  descends,  thereby  tilting  the 
lever,  D,  and  so  making  contact  between  the  plates,  E  and  F. 
The  latter  are  connected  by  an  electric  circuit  with  a  bell  which 


HOT-BEARING  ALARM, 

sounds  when  the  current  is  established.  The  pipe,  G,  serves  for 
the  ordinary  lubrication  of  the  journal.  It  is  suggested  that  this 
device  might  be  profitably  used  upon  journals  not  readily  acces- 
sible. 

Pulleys,   Balancing.— Swing   the  pulley   on   arbors  between 
lathe-centres,  and  note  the  position  as  determined  by  gravity.    On 


CONE    XtTLLEYS,   FIG.    1. 

the  top  side,  drill  and  tap  two  holes,  in  which  seat  machine  screws 
with  flat  heads,  the  shanks  projecting  through  from  the  face  or 


128 


ENGINEERING. 


outer  side.  Then,  by  pecurinj^  pieces  of  iron  as  weights  to  this 
point  until  the  pulley  is  balanced,  the  amount  necessary  to 
balance  the  pulley  is  found.  This  amount  of  lead  is  then  melted 
and  cast  in  a  mould  formed  by  clay.  The  screws  serve  to  hold 
the  lead  in  place. 

Pulleys,  To  design  cone. — The  following  rules  will  enable  any 
one  who  understands  arithmetical  operations  to  make  the  calcu- 
lations necessary  for  designing  a  set  of  cone  pulleys  in  such  a 
manner  that  the  belt  can  be  shifted  from  one  pair  to  another,  and 
be  equally  tight  in  every  position.  There  are  six  cases  to  be  con- 
sidered 


CONE  PULI.EY.1,  Fid.   2. 

Case  1. — Crossed  belt  jxissing  over  two  continuotis cones.  (Fig.  1 .) 
— In  this  case,  it  is  only  necessary  to  use  two  similar  conical 
drums,  with  their  large  and  snuill  ends  turniHl  ojjposite  way.s. 

Cask  2. — Crossid  belt  pasHiittj  over  tiro  stepped  eones  that  are 
equal  and  opposite.  (Fig.  2.)  Draw  vertical  lines,  A  B,  CD,  etc., 
to  tlie  axes  of  tlie  pulleys,  at  a  distance  apart  e(]ual  to  the  face  of 
a  pulley.  Lay  off,  on  each  si(l(M)f  tlie  axis,  distances,  ab,  ac,  e(jual 
to  tlie  radius  of  Ihc  largest  piilii-y,  and  d  r,  d  f,  e(|ual  to  tlic  radius 
of  tli'i  smaJlrst  pulley.  Draw  a  siraiglit  line,  li  .M,  llnDUtrli  i)an(l 
e,  and  !S  ()  lliiMugli  c  and  f.  'I'lu-  points  in  which  llu-se  lines  rut 
the  verticals  detennini'  the  radii  of  tlie  intermediate  ])ulleys. 

Cask  ;{. — (Jros.sed  heft  pussiiuj  orer  ain/  tien  .ntepped  cones. — As- 
Bume  values  for  the  radii  of  one  dri\  ing-pulh-v  and  the  corre- 
sponding driven   pulley.      'I'lieii,    for    any    asHuiiied    radius    of    a 


ENGINEERING. 


129 


second  driving-pulley,  the  radius  of  the  driven  pulley  must  have 
such  a  value  that  the  sum  of  these  two  radii  is  equal  to  the  sum 
of  the  first  two.  The  same  must  be  true  for  every  pair  of  pulleys 
in  the  two  stepped  cones. 

Example. — Suppose  the  radius  of  the  first  driving-pulley  is  15 
inches,  and  of  the  first  driven  pulley  5  inches.  Now,  if  there  are 
five  steps  in  the  driving-cone,  having  radii  of  15,  12,  9,  6,  and  3 
inches  respectively,  the  corresponding  steps  of  the  driven  cone 
will  have  radii  of  5,  8,  11,  14,  and  17  inches,  since  the  sum  of  the 
radii  of  each  pair  of  pulleys  must  be  equal  to  the  sum  of  the 
radii  of  the  first  pair,  or  20  inches.  It  will  be  evident  from  the 
foregoing  that,  in  the  case  of  crossed  belts,  the  construction  of 
cone-pulleys  is  very  simple,  since  it  is  only  necessary  to  observe 
the  directions  given  above,  no  matter  what  the  distance  between 
the  centres  of  driving  and  driven  pulley  may  be. 


CONE  PTTLI/EYS,    FIG.   3. 

Case  4. — Open  belt  passing  over  two  continuous  pulleys.   (Fig.  3.) 

For  this  case  equal  and  similar  conoids  must  be  used.  Assume 
the  largest  radius,  AF,  and  the  smallest,  B  D,  and  calculate,  by  the 
rule  on  page  111,  the  length  of  belt  required  for  pulleys  with  the 
given  radit,  the  distance,  K  L,  between  their  centres  being  given. 
Then  the  middle  radius,  C  H,  is  found  by  the  following  rule  : 

Subtract  twice  the  distance  between  centres  from  the  length  of 
the  belt,  and  divide  the  difference  by  the  number  6.2832. 

Having  found  the  middle  radius,  draw  circular  arcs  through  the 
points  F  H  D  and  G  I  E,  thus  determining  the  section  of  the 
conoid. 

Example. — Suppose  that  the  largest  radius  is  24  inches,  the 


130 


ENGINEERING. 


smallest  6  inches,  and  the  distance  between  centres  of  conoids  3 
feet.    What  should  be  the  middle  radius  ? 

First  find  the  length  of  belt :  3  diminished  by  0.5  equals  1.5. 
This  divided  by  3  equals  0.5,  and  the  corresponding  number  in 
table  of  factors,  page  111,  is  1.047— (1).  1.047  multiplied  by  1.5 
equals  1.571 — (2).  2  added  to  0.5  equals  2.5,  which  multiplied  by 
3.1416  equals  7.854 — (3).  3  multiplied  by  3  equals  9,  which  less 
2.25  equals  6.75.  1.5  multiplied  by  1.5  equals  2.25.  The  square 
root  of  6.75  is  2.6,  which  multiplied  by  2  equals  5.2— (4).  The 
sum  of  5.2  and  1.571  and  7.854  equals  14.625,  wliich  is  the  length 
of  belt.  Then  find  the  middle  radius  by  the  preceding  rule  :  3 
multiplied  by  2  equals  6.  14.625  less  6  equals  8.625,  which  divid- 
ed by  6.2832  equals  1.373  feet,  or  about  16i  inches  middle  radius 
required. 


co.NK  inn.i.KYs,  pio.  4. 


Case  5. — Opni  hrlt  passinr/  over  two  stepped  roncx  that  are  equal 
and  oppositf. — (Fig.  4.) — The  construction  will  be  evidtMit  from 
the  figure,  it  only  being  nece.s.sary  to  form  two  continuous  conoids, 
UH  explained  above,  and  divide  tliciu  into  the  rctjuiri'd  number  of 

Ht(!p«. 

("ahkO. — (^)pni,  Ixit  pasHiiHj  iirrr  an//  tiro  ><t(j)/)(<l  cdhis. — Th(^ 
ruUrs  for  this  case,  originally  demonstrated  ])y  J.  li.  Ilenek,  are 
jiresented  below  in  a  siniiililied  fnrni.  Kirst  assnme  the  radii  of 
<me  driving-j)ulley  and  tliu  corresponding  driven  pulley,  measure 
the  distance  between  tlu-ir  centres,  and  find  the  length  of  belt  re- 


ENGINEEKING.  131 

quired.  Then  assume  values  for  the  radii  of  the  successive  pul- 
leys on  the  driving-cone,  and  calculate  the  values  of  the  corre- 
sponding radii  on  the  driven  cone  by  the  following  rules  :  I.  Hav- 
ing assumed  the  value  of  one  radius,  it  is  first  necessary  to  ascer- 
tain whether  the  one  to  be  calculated  is  larger  or  smaller.  (1) 
Multiply  the  assumed  radius  by  the  number  3.1416,  and  increase 
the  product  by  the  distance  between  the  centres  of  the  pulleys. 
(2)  If  the  quantity  obtained  by  (1)  is  greater  than  half  the  length 
of  the  belt,  the  assumed  radius  is  greater  than  the  one  to  be  de- 
termined. (3)  If  the  quantity  obtained  by  (1)  is  less  than  half 
the  length  of  the  belt,  the  assumed  radius  is  less  than  the  one  to 
be  determined.  II.  When  the  assumed  radius  is  the  greater  of  the 
two,  to  find  the  other  one.  The  distance  between  centres  and  the 
length  of  belt  are  supposed  to  be  given.  (1)  Multiply  the  as 
sumed  radius  by  the  number  6.2832,  subtract  this  product  from 
the  length  of  the  belt,  and  divide  the  remainder  by  the  distance 
between  centres.  (2)  Add  the  quantity  obtained  by  (1)  to  the 
number  0.4674,  and  extract  the  square  root  of  the  sum.  (3) 
Subtract  the  quantity  oljtained  by  (2)  from  the  number  1.5708,  and 
multiply  the  difference  by  the  distance  between  centres.  (4) 
Subtract  the  quantity  obtained  by  (3)  from  the  assumed  radius  ; 
the  remainder  will  be  the  required  radius.  III.  Wlien  the  assumed 
radius  is  the  smaller  of  the  two,  to  find  the  other  one.  (1)  Same  as 
(1)  of  preceding  rule.  (2)  Same  as  (2)  of  preceding  rule.  (3) 
Subtract  the  number  1.5708  from  the  quantity  obtained  by  (2),  and 
multiply  the  difference  by  the  distance  between  centres.  (4)  Add 
the  quantity  obtained  by  (3)  to  the  assumed  radius  ;  the  sum  v?ill 
be  the  required  radius. 

E.mmple. — The  first  driving-pulley  of  a  stepped  cone  has  a  ra- 
dius of  12  inches,  and  the  radius  of  the  corresponding  driven 
pulley  is  4  inches  ;  the  distance  between  centres  of  pulleys  is  3 
feet,  and  there  are  three  other  pulleys  on  the  driving-cone,  having 
radii  of  9,  6,  and  3  inches  respectively.  It  is  required  to  find  the 
radii  of  the  corresponding  pulleys  on  the  driven  cone.  It  will  be 
necessary  first  to  calculate  the  length  of  belt  required,  which  is 
10.334  feet,  or  about  10  feet  4  inches. 

Next  find  whether  the  pulleys  on  the  driving  or  driven  cone  are 
the  largest.  Half  the  length  of  belt  is  5.167  feet.  For  the  9- 
inch  pulley,  0.75  multiplied  by  3.1416  is  2.356,  and  adding  3,  the 
sum  is  5.356,  wliich  is  greater  than  5.167,  showing  that  the  9-inch 
pulley  is  larger  than  the  pulley  to  be  determined.  For  the  6-inch 
pulley:  0.5  multiplied  by  3.1416  equals  1.571,  and  increased  by  3 
equals  4.571,  and  as  this  is  less  than  5.167,  the  6-inch  pulley  is 
smaller  than  the  pulley  to  be  determined.  Of  course,  then,  the 
remaining  3-inch  pulley  is  still  smaller  than  the  corresponding 
pulley  in  the  driven  cone. 

To  find  the  radius  of  the  pulley  corresponding  to  the  one  on 
the  driving-cone  whose  radius  is  9  inches  :  (1)  0.75  multiplied  by 
6.2832,  4.712.  Subtracting  4.712  from  10.334,  the  remainder  is 
5.622  ;  5.622  divided  bv  3,  1.874.  (2)  0.467  added  to  1.874,  2.341. 
Square  root  of  2.341,  1.53.  (3)  Subtracting  1.53  fnmi  1.571,  the 
remainder  is  0.041  ;  0.041  multiplied  by  3,  0.123.  (4)  Subtract- 
ing 0.123  from  0.75,  the  remainder  is  0.627  feet,  or  about  7^ 
inches,  radius  of  required  jjulley. 


132  ENGINEERING. 


Pulley  corresponding  to  driving-pulley  whose  radius  is  6 
inches  :  0.5  multiplied  by  6.2833  equals  3.142.  This  subtracted 
from  10.334  equals  7.192,  which  divided  by  3  equals  2.397— (1). 
Adding  0.467,  we  have  2.864,  the  square  root  of  which  is  1.692 
— (2).  1.692  diminished  by  1.571  equals  0.121,  which  multiplied 
by  3  equals  0.363 — (3).  Adding  0.5  gives  0.863  feet,  or  about 
lO^Y  inches,  required  radius. 

Pulley  corresponding  to  driving-pulley  whose  radius  is  3 
inches  :  0.25  multiplied  by  6.2832  equals  1.571.  This,  subtracted 
from  10.334,  equals  8.763.  Dividing  the  last  by  3  gives  2.921— 
(1) ;  and  by  adding  0.467  we  have  3.388.  Of  this  the  square  root 
is  1.841 — (2).  Subtracting  1.571  givesO.27,  which  multiplied  by  3 
equals  0.81,  and  adding  0.25  gives  1.06  feet,  or  about  12^  inches, 
required  radius. 

The  radii  of  the  several  pulleys  on  the  two  cones  then  will  be  : 

Driving-cone 12,     9,     6,       3       inches. 

Driven  cone 4,  7^,  10^,  12r6  inches. 

B. 

Pulleys,  Set-screws  for. — These  should  be  made  of  cast-steel 
with  hollow  points  ;  the  ends  should  then  be  beveled  to  an  edge 
surrounding  the  hole,  and  tempered  to  a  dark  straw.  When  set 
up,  these  screws  cut  circular  indentations  on  the  shaft,  and  exert 
an  enormous  force  of  resistance. 

Pulleys,  Working  value  of. — Pulleys  covered  with  leather, 
iron  pulleys  polished,  and  mahogany  pulleys  polished,  rank  for 
working  value  as  36,  24,  and  25  \nn-  cent  respectively,  wood  and 
iron  uncovered  being  almost  identical. 

Rawhide  Boxes  for  machinery. — A  ])ractical  machinist  says  : 
"  I  have  run  a  piece  of  nuicliiu«-ry  in  rawhide  boxes  for  fourteen 
years  without  oil  ;  it  is  good  yet,  and  runs  at  4500  per  minute.  I 
put  it  in  while  soft,  and  let  it  remain  until  dry." 

SiiAFTiNfi  Accidents,  Preventing. — Accidents  are  common  in 
large  nuiniifactorics  tlirougli  tlu;  cngagcnient  of  some  jjortion  of 
a  workman's  garments  witli  a  swiftly  rotating  shaft.  A  .siyi])le 
way  of  rendering  these  casualties  inqiossibh;  is  to  cover  the  shaft 
with  a  loose  sleeve  along  its  whole  length.  'I'he  sleeve  may  be 
of  tin  or  zinc,  and  made  so  as  to  be  removable  if  -desired.  The 
friction  between  it  and  the  shaft  would  be  sufficient  to  cause  its 
rotation  with  tlie  latter,  biit  of  course,  in  event  of  a  fabric  be- 
coming wrapped  around  it,  it  would  <|uick!y  stop,  and  allow  of 
the  easy  extrication  of  the  same.  'J'he  sleeve  should  be  lined 
with  leather  both  witliiu  and  at  the  ends  in  order  to  ])revent 
noise.  Thcs  same  idea  in  the  sluipe  of  loose  covers  miglit  readily 
be  applied  to  cog-wlu^els  or  pulleys. 

SiiAKTiN(!,  Lining. — Evc^y  out!  operating  long  lines  of  shaft- 
ing should  provide  an  adjusting  roil,  as  shown  in  the  (engraving. 
A  may  be  a  rod  or  a  pier*;  of  gus])ipe,  of  suflicient  length  to 
nrach  from  llie  simft,  (),  to  within  about  4  feet  of  the  floor  ;  an 
ofTsca  i)i(;ce,  M,  is  fixed  to  the.  top  of  this  rod,  which  earries  a 
riglit  and  ]»;ft  iiand  screw,  C  ;  two  jaws,  D,  travel  u|i<in  this 
BCrow,    one    upon   tlm  right    and    the  otlier    uixin   the    ht'l    hand 


ENGINEERING. 


133 


thread,  as  shown.  The  screw  may  be  worked  by  a  ;J:-in.  wire,  E, 
with  a  crank,  F,  at  its  lower  end  ;  if  a  gas-pipe  is  used,  the  wire 
may  pass  through  the  pipe,  and  the  lower 
end  of  the  screw,  C,  enter  the  top  of  the 
pipe  as  a  bearing.  If  the  rod,  A,  is  of  wood, 
three  or  four  wire  staples  will  suffice  as 
guides  for  the  wire,  as  indicated.  A  tar- 
get, Q,  with  a  clamp-screw,  slides  upon 
the  rod,  for  the  purpose  of  easy  adjustment 
to  the  sights  of  the  leveling  instrument. 

Now  it  will  of  course  be  apparent  to 
every  one  that,  whenever  several  sizes  of 
shafting  occur  in  the  same  line,  this  ad 
justing- rod  will  always  give  the  exact 
central  distance,  O,  of  the  shaft  from  the 
target  ;  hence  we  have  only  to  plant  the 
leveling  instrument  in  a  position  to  com- 
mand a  view  of  the  target  when  suspend- 
ed from  each  of  the  several  bearings  of  a 
line  of  shafting,  in  order  to  adjust  the  lev- 
el of  a  line  with  the  utmost  expedition 
and  accuracy.  An  engineer's  tripod  and 
level  is,  of  course,  the  best  instrument  for 
this  pui'pose,  but,  when  this  is  not  at 
hand,  an  ordinary  builder's  level  may  be 
used :  the  longer  it  is,  the  better.  Fix  a 
temporary  sight  at  one  end  of  the  level  ;  a 
piece  of  tin  (with  a  small  pin-hole)  next 
the  eye,  and  a  piece  of  tin  or  thin  wood 
with  a  large  hole  at  the  farther  end,  with 
a  vertical  and  a  horizontal  thread  stretch- 
ed across  the  hole,  with  their  point  of 
intersection  the  same  distance  above  the 
level  as  the  hole  in  the  eye-piece.  The 
level  may  be  used  upon  a  level  stand  or 
table,  some  five  feet  from  the  floor. 

To  adjust  a  line  of  shafting  laterally, 
an  adjusting-rod  must  of  course  be  used 
horizontally  in  connection  with  a  strong 
line,  stretched  as  taut  as  possible,  at  such 
distance  from  the  shafting  as  to  need 
nearly  the  full  length  of  the  rod  to  reach 
it.  The  reason  for  placing  the  line  at 
such  a  distance  from  the  shaft  is  to  pre- 
vent the  difference  in  level  between  the 
line  and  the  shaft  from  materially  impair- 
ing the  truth  of  the  result.  If  the  line  is 
very  long,  it  will  sag  so  much  that  a 
plumb-line  suspended  from  the  measuring 

point  of  the  target  or  rod  may  be  neces-         „g,,j^.p^  ^^^^  ^^^^^^ 
sary  for  perfect  accuracy.  shafting. 

The  jaws,  D,  should  be  so  formed  that 
they  may  be  applied  to   the  inside  of    boxes.     Pivot-boxes  are 


134  ENGINEERING. 


now  so  generally  used,  however,  that  this  application  of  the  rod 
is  not  so  common. 

Shafts,  Sprung:. — If  a  shaft  sprintrg  in  running,  the  trouble 
lies  probably  in  either  a  too  small  diameter  of  the  shaft  for  its 
weijrht  and  velocity,  a  set  of  unbalanced  pulleys,  or  an  unequal 
strain  on  either  side  by  the  belts. 

Wood,  Lubricant  for. — A  mixture  of  black-lead  and  soap. 


PEACTIOAL  TECHNOLOGY. 


CEMENTS,   GLUES,   AND    MOULDING    COMPO- 
SITIONS. 

Casts,  To  prepare  plaster  of  Paris  for.— Immerse  tlie  unburnt ' 
gypsum  for  15  minutes  in  water  containing  8  or  10  per  cent  of 
sulphuric  acid,  and  then  calcine  it.     Prepared  in  this  way  it  sets 
slowly,  but  makes  excellent  casts,  which  are  perfectly   white 
instead  of  the  usual  grayish  tint. 

Casts,  Transparent. — Beautiful  semi-transparent  casts  of  fancy 
articles  may  be  taken  in  a  compound  of  2  parts  unbaked  gyp- 
sum, 1  part  bleached  beeswax,  and  1  part  paraffine.  This  be- 
comes plastic  at  130°,  and  is  quite  tough. 

Cements. — Aii'  and  imter-tight,  for  casks  and  cisterns  :  Melt- 
ed glue  8  parts,  linseed-oil  4;  boil  into  a  varnish  with  litharge. 
This  hardens  in  48  hours.  Plumbers' :  Black  resin  1  part,  brick- 
dust  2.  Melt  together.  For  leaky  boilers  :  Powdered  litharge  2 
parts,  fine  sand  2,  slaked  lime  1.  Mix  with  boiled  linseed-oil. 
Apply  quickly.  Acid-proof :  A  paste  of  powdered  glass  and 
concentrated  solution  of  water-glass.  Cutlers' :  (1)  Pitch  4  parts, 
resin  4,  tallow2,  and  brick-dust  2.  (2)  Eesin  4,  beeswax  1,  brick- 
dust  1.  (3)  Resin  16,  hot  whiting  1,  wax  1.  This  is  used  for  fas- 
tening blades  in  handles.  For  ivory  or  tnother-of -pearl :  Isinglass 
1  part,  white  glue  2,  dissolved  in  30  parts  hot  water  and  evaporated 
to  6  parts.  Add  gum-mastic  ^  part,  dissolved  in  \  part  alcohol, 
and  add  1  part  zinc- white.  Shake  up  and  use  warm.  Jeiceler's,  for 
■uniting  all  substances  :  Gum -mastic  5  or  6  bits  as  large  as  a  pea  dis- 
solved in  spirits  of  wine  sufficient  to  render  all  liquid.  In  another 
vessel  dissolve  the  same  amount  of  isinglass  in  rum  enough  to 
make  2  ozs.  of  strong  glue,  adding  2  small  pieces  of  gum  ammo- 
niacum,  which  must  be  moved  until  dissolved.  Heat  and  mix 
the  whole.  Keep  in  a  closely-corked  phial,  and  put  the  latter  in 
boiling  water  before  using.  Black,  for  bottle-corks :  Pitch  hard- 
ened by  the  addition  of  brick-dust  and  resin.  For  jet :  Use  shel- 
lac, warming  the  edges  before  applying,  and  smoke  the  joint  to 
make  it  black.  For  meerschaum  or  china  :  (1)  Make  a  dough  of 
garlic,  rub  on  the  edges  and  bind  tightly  together.  Boil  the 
object  for  half  an  hour  in  milk.  (2)  Use  quicklime  mixed  to  a 
thick  cream  with  white  of  egg.  Soft,  for  steam-boilers  :  Red  or 
white  lead  in  oil  4  parts,  iron  borings  3  parts.  Oasfitters' :  Resin 
4^  parts,  wax  1,  Venetian  red  3.  Chopper  smiths'  :  Boiled  linseed- 
oil  and  red  lead  made  into  a  putty.  This  is  used  to  secure  joints 
and  on  washers.  For  emery  on  to  icood  :  E(]ual  parts  of  shellac, 
white  resin,  and  carbolic  acid  in  crystals.     Add  the  acid  after  the 


136  rRACTICAL    TECHNOLOGY. 

others  are  melted.  Iron  and  emery :  Coat  the  meta.  with  oil 
and  white-lead,  and  when  hard  apply  the  emery  mixed  with  fjlue. 
Firnch  ]mtfy,hni'd  and  permanent:  Linseed-oil  7  parts,  brown 
umber  4,  boiled  for  2  hours,  ^  part  white-wax  stirred  in.  Re- 
move from  fire  and  thoroughly  mix  in  white-lead  11,  and  fine 
chalk  5^  parts.  India-rubher :  Fill  a  bottle  -^q  full  of  native 
india-rubber  cut  into  fine  shreds.  Pour  in  benzole  from  coal-tar 
till  the  bottle  is  f  full.  The  rubber  will  swell  ;  and  if  the  whole 
be  shaken  every  few  days,  the  mixture  will  become  as  thick  as 
honey.  If  too  thick,  add  benzole  ;  if  thin,  add  rubber.  This 
dries  in  a  few  minutes,  and  will  unite  backs  of  books,  straps, 
etc.,  very  firmly.  C7iinese,  for  fancy  articles,  wood,  yhtsfi,  etc.  : 
Finest  pale-orange  shellac,  broken  small,  4  parts,  rectified  spirit 
.  3  parts.  Keep  in  a  corked  bottle  in  a  warm  place  until  dissolved. 
It  should  be  as  thick  as  molasses.  liust  joints  :  (1)  Clean  iron 
borings  2  parts,  flowers  of  sulphur  jV.  sal-ammoniac  -j^-.  (2) 
Finely-powdered  iron  borings  1  part,  sal-ammoniac  ^,  flowers  of 
sulphur  T^;.  Pound  together  and  keep  dry.  For  use,  mix  1  part 
with  20  of  pounded  iron  borinors,  and  mix  to  a  mortar  consis- 
tence with  water.  F'or  making  metallic  joints  soinul :  (1)  Use 
a  i)utty  of  boiled  linseed-oil  and  red-lead.  (2)  Use  &, 
putty  of  equal  parts  of  white  and  red  lead.  For  electrical  and 
chemical  appartdtis :  Resin  5  parts,  wax  1,  red  ochre  1,  plaster  of 
Paris  \.  Melt  at  moderate  heat.  For  mending  stone,  or  as  mas- 
tic for  brick  walls  :  Make  a  paste  of  linseed-oil  with  clean  river 
sand  20  parts,  litluir<re  2,  quicklime  1.  For  chucking  work  in  the 
lathe  :  (1)  Black  resin  8  parts,  yellow  wax  1  ;  melt  togetlier.  For 
use,  cover  the  chuck  to  Vg  in.  thick,  spreadinjr  over  the  surface  in 
small  pieces,  mixing  it  with  -jlr  its  bulk  of  gutta-percha  in  thin 
slices.  Heat  an  iron  to  dull  red  and  hold  it  over  the  chuck  till 
the  mixture  and  gutta-])crcha  are  melted  and  rKpiid.  Stir  the 
cement  with  the  iron  until  it  is  smoothly  mixed.  Chuck  the 
work,  lay  on  a  weight  to  enforce  contact,  and  let  it  rest  for  half 
an  hour  before  using.  (2)  Burgundy  pitch  2  ))arts,  resin  2,  yellow 
wax  i,  dried  wax  2.  Melt  and  mix.  (3)  Resin  4  parts,  nudted 
with  pitch  1.  While  boiling  add  brick-dust  until  dro])])ing  a 
little  on  stone  shows  the  mixtures  to  be  sufficiently  liard.  /'J/astic, 
for  leather  or  india-rubber  :  Hisuljjhidr  of  carbon  4  ozs.,  shrcd- 
d(^d  india-rubber  1  oz.,  isinglass  2  drachms,  gutta-pt'rcha  ^  oz. 
Dissolve,  coat  the  jjarts,  dry,  tlien  heat  the  layer  to  melting, 
place  and  press  the  parts  together.  Water-tight,  for  iroodcn  vessels  : 
Lime,  clay,  and  oxidt^  of  iron,  mixed,  kfpt  in  a  close  vessel  and 
conqinundcd  with  water  fur  use.  Fi>r  huther,  Htrojis,  etc.  :  (Jut- 
ta-pcrcha  dissolved  in  bi.siiiphidi;  of  carl)on.  Kec])  tightly  cork«'d 
and  cool.  It  sliouid  be  of  tlie  consistenct'of  molasses.  For  mar- 
ble, or  for  attaching  glass  to  metal:  Plasler  of  Paris  soakinl  in 
a  Hafiirated  solution  of  alum  and  baked  hard,  (iiiud  to  powdi-r 
and  mix  witii  wat(U'  for  use.  Can  be  colonul  to  imitate!  any 
marble,  and  takes  a  fine  p<»Iish.  hnp(rri<nis,  J'or  corks,  etc.  : 
Zinc-whit(!  rubbed  up  willi  co|)al  varnish.  (Jiv»)  two  coats  so  as 
to  fill  all  tlie  ]inri's,  and  liuisli  with  varnish  alone.  For  cracks  in 
wood:  (1)  Slak<;d  lime  1  part,  rye  meal  2,  and  linseed-oil  2.  (2) 
Use  a  paste  of  sawdust  and  ]>re|)are(l  chalk  with  glue  1  ])art, 
dissolved  in   water  10.      {'<))   Uil-vainish    thickened     with   equal 


PKACTICAL  TECHNOLOGY.  137 

parts  of  litharge,  clialk,  and  white  and  red  lead.     For  wood  and 
glass  or  metals  :  (1)  Resin  and  calcined  plaster,  the  former  melted, 
made  into  a  paste.     Add  boiled  oil  to  consistence  of  honey.     (2) 
Dissolved  glue  and  wood-ashes  to  consistence  of  varnish.     Fire- 
proof and  irater -proof :  Pulverized   zinc- white,    sifted  peroxide 
of   manganese,  equal   parts.     Make    into   a   paste    with    soluble 
glass.     To  mend  iron  pots  and  pans  :  Partially  melt  2  parts  sul- 
phur, and  add  1  part  fine  black-lead.     Mix  well,  pour  on  stone, 
cool,  and  break  in  pieces.     Use  like  solder  with  an  iron.     London 
cement,  for  glass,  wood,  china,   etc.:  Boil  a  piece  of  cheese  three 
times  in  water,  each  time  allowing  the  water  to  evaporate.     Mix 
the  paste  left  with  quicklime.     For  aquaria :  (1)  For  fresh  water 
aquaria  :  Take  \  gill  gold-size,  2  gills  red-lead,  1^  gills  litharge, 
and  sufficient  silver  sand  for  a  thick  paste.     This  sets  in  about  2 
days.     (2).  For  fresh  or  salt  water  :  Take  ^  gill  powdered  resin, 
1  gill  dry   white   sand,  1  gill  litharge,   1  gill  plaster  of   Paris. 
Sift  ;  and  for  use  mix  with  boiled  linseed-oil  to  which  a  little 
dryer  has  been  added.   Mix  15  hours  before  using,  and  allow  2  or 
3  hours  to  dry.     For  petroleum  lamps,  impervious  to  the  oil :  Re- 
sin 3  parts,  boiled  with  water  5  and    caustic  soda  1.     Then  mix 
with  half  its  weight  of  plaster  of  Paris.     This  sets  in  f  hour. 
Roman  :  Green  copperas  3^  lbs.,  slaked  lime  1  bushel,  fine  gravel 
sand  1  bushel.     Dissolve  the  copperas  in  hot  water,  and  mix  all 
to  proper  consistence.     Keep  stirred.     Glass   to  glass,  for  sign- 
letters,  etc.  :  Melt  in  a  water-bath  liquefied  glue  5  parts,  copal 
varnish  15,  drying-oil  5,  oil  of  turpentine  2,  turpentine  3.     Add 
slaked  lime   10.      Hydraulic  :  Oxide   of  iron  1    part,   powdered 
clay  3,  and  boiled  oil  to  a  stiff   paste.      Stone :    Sand  20  parts, 
litharge  2,  quicklime  1,  mixed  with  linseed-oil.     Leather   and 
cloth,  for  uniting  parts  of  boots  and  shoes,  seams,  etc.  :  Gutta- 
percha 16  parts,  india-rubber  4,  pitch  2,  shellac  1,  oil  2.     Mix  and 
use  hot.     Mahogany  :  Shellac  melted  and  colored.     Colorless,  for 
paper :   Add  cold  water  to  rice-flour,   mix,  bring  to  proper  con- 
sistence with  boiling  water,  and  boil  one  minute.      Water-proof, 
for  cistern  stones :  (i)  Whiting  100  parts,  resin  68,  sulphur  18+^ 
tar  9.     Melt  together.     (2)   Sand  100  parts,  quicklime  28,  bone 
ashes   14,  mixed  with  water.       Transimrent :    India-rubber   75 
parts,  chloroform  60.     Mix,  and  add  mastic  15.      Cloth  to  iron  : 
Soak  the  cloth  in  a  dilute  solution  of  galls,   squeezing  out  the 
superfluous  moisture,  and  applying  the  cloth,  still  damp,  to  the 
surface  of  the  iron,  which  has  been  previously  heated  and  coated 
with  strong  glue.     The  cloth  should  be  kept  firmly  pressed  upon 
the  iron  until  the  glue  has  dried.     For  cracks  in  stoves:  Finely- 
pulverized  iron  (procured  at  a  druggist's)  made  into  a  thick  paste 
with  water-glass.      The  hotter  the  fire,    the   more    the  cement 
melts  and  combines,  and  the  more  completely  does  the  crack  be- 
come closed.     For  china,  glass,  etc.  :  Diamond   cement,  for  glass 
or  china,  is  nothing  more  than  isinglass  boiled  in  water  to  the 
consistence   of  cream,  with    a   small   portion  of     rectified   spirit 
added.     It  must  be  warmed  when  used.     2.  White-lead    rubbed 
up  with  oil.     Articles  mended  with  this  must  stand  for  a  month. 
For  corks  of  benzine-bottles :  A  paste  of   concentrated  glycerine 
(commonest  kind)  and  litharge.     This  soon  hardens,  and  is'insolu- 
ble  in  benzine  or  any  of  the  light  hydro-carbon  oils.     For  eaustie 


138  PKACTICAL   TECHNOLOGY. 

lye  tanks  •  The  tanks  may  be  formed  of  plates  of  heavy-spar, 
the  joints  being  cemented  together  by  a  mixture  of  1  part  finely 
divided  india-rubber  dissolved  in  2  parts  turpentine  oil,  with  4 
parts  powdered  heavy-spar  added.  Colored  :  Soluble  glass  of  33** 
B.  is  to  be  thoroughly  stirred  and  mixed  with  fine  chalk  and  the 
coloring  matter  well  incorporated.  In  the  course  of  six  or  eight 
hours  a  hard  cement  will  set.  The  following  are  the  coloring 
materials  :  1.  Black  :  Well-sifted  sulphide  of  antimony.  This 
can  be  polished  with  agate  to  a  metallic  lustre.  2.  Gray-black  : 
Fine  iron-dust.  3.  Gray  :  Zinc-dust.  This  has  a  brilliant  lus 
tre,  and  may  be  used  for  mending  zinc  castings.  4.  Bright  green  : 
Carbonate  of  copper.  5.  Dark  green  :  Sescjuioxide  of  chromium. 
6.  Blue:  Thenard's  blue.  7.  Yellow:  Cadmium.  8.  Bright  red : 
Cinnabar.  9.  Violet  red  :  Carmine.  10.  Pure  white  :  Fine 
chalk  as  above. 

Cement,  Portland,  To  test. — Three  tests  are  used  :  (1)  Resist- 
ance to  tensile  force.  (2)  Specific  gravity.  (3)  Water  test.  The 
first  is  by  making  a  specimen  briquette  in  a  mould  with  a  trans- 
verse section  of  2.25  square  inches,  the  specimen  being  held  ver- 
tically in  clips,  which  is  placed  under  the  .-^hort  arm  of  a  steel- 
balance,  and  broken.  A  test  of  500  lbs.  has  been  used  on  an  area 
of  2.25  square  inches  after  7  days'  immersion  in  water.  The  sec- 
ond method  is  by  finding  the  weight  in  ])ounds  of  the  struck 
bushel.  The  water  test  is  useful  when  the  others  can  not  be  ap- 
plied. It  consists  of  gauging  a  small  quantity  of  the  dry  powder 
with  water,  and  immediately  immersing  it  in  water.  If  the 
shari)er  edges  crack  or  break  away  after  a  short  time,  the  cement 
is  too  hot  or  fresh,  or  is  inferior  in  quality.  The  weight  of  good 
Portland  fement  ranges  from  100  lbs.  to  130  lbs.  per  bushel,  equal 
to  from  80  lbs.  to  102  lbs.  per  cubic  foot.  The  lighter  kinds  set 
more  rapidly  than  the  heavier,  but  are  weaker.  The  specific  gra- 
vity should  be  of  110  lbs.  to  a  bushel. 

Glued  Joints,  Strength  of. — Tlu;  absolute  strength  of  a  well- 
glued  joint  is  given  as  follows  in  pounds  per  square  inch  : 


Across  the  grain. 

With  the  grain 

Beech, 

2133 

1095 

Elm, 

1436 

1134 

Oak, 

1735 

568 

Whitewood, 

1493 

841 

Maple, 

1422 

896 

It  is  customary  to  use  from  ^  to  -^  of  the  above  values  to  cal- 
culate the  resistances  wliich  surfaces  joined  with  glu(*  can  perma- 
nently be  submitted  to  with  safely. 

CJlue,  Fire-i)n)of. — A  handful  of  <iuicklime  mixed  in  4  ozs.  of 
linseed-oil  and  boiled  to  a  good  thickness  Tuakes,  wiien  spread  on 
plates  and  hardened,  a  glue  which  can  be  used  in  the  ordinary 
way,  but  wliidi  will  resist  (ire. 

Glue,  Li<iui(i.  —  Dissolve  the  glue  in  an  e(|uai  amount  of  strong 
hot  vinegar,  adding  \  alcohol  and  a  little  alum.  Will  keep  in- 
definitely. 

Glueh,  Marine. — (1)  Pure  india-rubber   1  pt.,  dissolved  by  heat 


PRACTICAL    TECHNOLOGY.  ^39 

in  naphtha  ;  when  melted,  iidd  shellac,  2  pts.  (2)  Glue,  13  pts., 
water  to  dissolve,  and  yellow  resin,  3  pts.  Melt,  add  turpentine,' 
4  pts.,  and  mix.  Portable,  for  draughtsmen  :  Glue  5  ozs.,  sugar 
2  ozs.,  water  8  ozs.  Melt  in  water-bath,  cast  in  moulds,  and  dis- 
solve for  use  in  warm  water.  Fur  bank-notes  :  Fine  glue  or 
gelatine,  1  lb.,  dissolved  in  water,  and  the  water  evaporated  until 
nearly  expelled.  Add  I  lb.  brown  sugar,  and  pour  in  moulds.  For 
gutta-percha:  Common  black  pitch  2  pts.,  guttapercha  1  pt. 
Mould  into  shape.  Elastic  :  Dissolve  glue  in  a  water-bath,  evapo- 
rate to  a  thick  tiuid,  and  add  an  equal  weight  of  glycerine.  Cool 
on  a  slab.  Liquid  :  (1)  White  glue  16  ozs  ,  dry  white-lead  4 
ozs.,  soft  water  2  pints,  alcohol  4  ozs.  Stir  and  bottle  while  hot. 
(2)  Glue  3  pts.  softened  in  8  parts  water.  Add  i  pt.  muriatic  acid 
and  I  pt.  sulphate  of  zinc.  Heat  to  176°  Fahr.''for  12  hours.  Al- 
low the  compound  to  sei  tie.  Beat  and  moisture-proof;  Linseed- 
oil  4  ozs.,  1  handful  of  quicklime  ;  boil  to  good  thickness,  and 
cool.  It  will  become  very  hard,  but  is  as  easily  dissolved  as  com- 
.  mon  glue.  Water-proof,  simple :  Common  glue  1  lb.  boiled  in 
2  qts.  skimmed  milk. 

Glue,  Test  for  goodness  of. — Assuming  that  that  is  the  best 
glue  which  will  take  up  most  water,  take  50  grains  of  the  speci- 
men and  dissolve  it  in  3  ozs.  water  in  a  water-bath.  When  dis- 
solved, set  it  by  for  12  hours  to  gelatinize,  and  tlien  take  an 
ounce  chip-box,  place  it  on  the  surface  of  the  gelatine,  and  put 
shot  into  the  box  until  it  sinks  down  to  a  nuirk  on  the  outside.  It 
will  be  found  that  the  stronger  the  glu--,  the  more  shot  it  will 
take  to  sink  the  box  down  so  that  tlie  mark  sliall  be  level  with 
the  surface  of  the  gelatine.  In  a  trial  with  very  fine  glue,  50 
grains  of  glue  dissolved  and  gelatinized  with  3  ozs.  of  water, 
supported  to  the  mark  on  the  box  6  ozs.  of  shot,  at  a  temperature 
of  58"  Fahr.  On  trying  the  same  experiment  with  best  Kussian 
isinglass,  9  ozs.  of  shot  were  supported,  the  temperature  being 
the  same.  This  test  is  of  course  intended  as  a  comparative  one 
between  two  kinds  of  glue,  or  between  any  kind  taken  as  a  stand- 
ard and  another  compared  with  it.  The  "placing  of  the  mark  is 
arbitrary. 

Gluk,  To  bleach. — Soak  in  moderately  strong  acetic  acid  for 
two  days,  drain,  place  on  a  sieve,  and  wash  well  with  cold  water. 
Dry  on  a  warm  plate. 

Moulding  Architectural  Ornaments. — A  good  composition 
for  this  purpose  is  made  of  chalk,  glue,  and  paper-paste. 

Moulding  Composition.—  Five  parts  of  sifted  whiting  mixed 
with  a  solution  of  1  part  glue,  together  with  a  little  Venice  turpen- 
tine to  obviate  the  brittleness,  makes  a  good  plastic  material,  which 
may  be  kneaded  into  figures  or  any  desired  shape.  It  should  be 
kept  warm  while  being  worked.  It  becomes  as  hard  as  stone 
when  dry. 

Paste,  To  mould  figures  in. — Take  the  crumb  of  a  new-drawn 
white  loaf,  mould  in  a  mass  until  the  whole  becomes  as  close  as 
wax  and  very  i)liab]e.  Then  heat  and  roll  with  a  rolling-pin. 
Mould  it  to  the  required  shape,  and  dry  in  a  stove. 


140  PRACTICAL   TECHNOLOGY. 

PhotoCtRAPHIC  Prints,  To  varnish. — Heat  a  piece  of  glass,  and 
rub  a  little  wax  over  it  with  a  bit  of  cottou-wool.  Pour  water 
over  the  plate,  and  press  the  picture  down  upon  it  with  a  piece 
of  filtering-paper.  When  dry,  the  picture  is  removed,  and  ■will 
be  found  to  possess  a  brilliant  surface. 

Picture-Frames,  Composition  for. — (1.)  To  make  composi- 
tion ornaments  for  picture- frames  :  Boil  7  lbs.  best  glue  in  3| 
pints  water,  melt  8  lbs.  Avhite  resin  in  3  pints  raw  linseed-oil  ; 
when  the  ingredients  are  well  boiled,  put  them  into  a  large  ves 
sel  and  simmer  them  for  half  an  hour,  stirring  the  mixture  and 
taking  care  that  it  does  not  boil  over.  When  this  is  done,  pour 
the  mixture  into  a  large  quantity  of  wliitlng,  previously  rolled 
and  sifted  very  fine,  mix  it  to  the  consistence  of  dough,  and  it  is 
ready  for  use.  (2)  Dissolve  1  lb.  glue  in  1  gallon  water  ;  in  another 
kettle  boil  together  2  lbs.  resin,  1  gill  Venice  turpentine,  and  1  ])int 
linseed-oil  ;  mix  together  in  one  kettle,  and  continue  to  boil  and 
stir  them  together  till  the  water  has  evaporated  from  the  other  in- 
gredients ;  then  add  finely-pulverized  whiting  till  the  mass  is 
brought  to  the  consistence  of  soft  putty.  This  composition  will 
be  hard  wlien  cold  ;  but  being  warmed,  it  maj'  be  uioulded  to  any 
shape  by  carved  stam]>s  or  jnints,  and  the  moulded  figures  will 
soon  become  dry  and  hard,  and  will  retain  their  shape  and  form 
permanently.  Frames  of  either  material  are  well  suited  for  gild- 
ing. 

Plaster  Casts,  To  toughen. — Immerse  in  a  hot  solution  of 
glue  long'enough  for  the  mass  to  be  well  saturated.  They  will 
bear  a  nail  driven  in  witliout  cracking. 

Plaster  Models,  Mending. — Sandarac  varnish  is  the  best  ma- 
terial. Saturate  the  broken  surfaces  thoroughly,  press  them  well 
together,  and  allow  them  to  dry. 

Plaster  Moulds. — Glycerine  is  said  to  be  a  good  coating  for 
the  interior,  but  ])ractical  plaster  moulders  still  use,  as  of  old,  a 
mixture  of  lard  and  oil. 


METAL- WC)RKING  HINTS  A^)KE('irES. 

Ai.iiOV  for  filling  defects  in  small  castings.  —  Lead  !)  parts, 
antiniuny  2,  bi.-^nnith  1.     Tliis  expiinds  on  cooling. 

Alloy  ok  Cori'Elt,  which  will  attach  itsilf  to  glass,  metal,  or 
]K>rcelaiii. — 20  to  30  parts  finely  ijleiidcd  cnppi'r  (made  by  n-duc- 
lion  of  oxide  of  ro])per  witli  hydrogen  or  ))recipitation  from  solu- 
tion of  its  suljjhate  with  ziiw)  are  made  intn  a  paste  with  oil  of 
vitriol.  To  tills  add  70  parts  mercury  ami  triturate  well  ;  then 
wash  out  the  acid  with  Itoiling  waiter  and  allow  llie  conii)ound  to 
cool.  In  10  or  12  hours,  it  Ijecoines  sullicieiitly  hard  to  receive  a 
brilliant  indish  and  to  scratch  the  surface  of  tin  or  gold.  When 
heated  it  becomes  plastic,  but  does  not  cf)ntracton   cooling. 

Alloy,  "  Ohdikk." — This  is  made  of  pure  copper  100  parts,  tin 
17  partH,  mugnesia  (i  parts,  Bal-aminoniac  3J  parts,  fpiicklinie  1^ 


PRACTICAL   TECHJfOLOGY.  141 

parts,  tartar  of  commerce  9  parts.  The  copper  is  first  melted,  then 
th  '  magnesia,  sal-ammoniac,  lime,  and  tartar  in  powder  are  added 
Litle  by  little  and  briskly  stirred  for  half  an  hour.  The  tin  is 
lastly  mixed  in  grains  until  all  is  fused.  The  crucible  is  covered, 
and  the  fusion  maintained  for  3o  minutes,  when  the  dross  is 
skimmed  oif  and  the  alloy  is  ready  for  use. 

Alloys,  To  extract  silver  from  old. — Dissolve  in  nitric  acid  and 
precipitate  the  chloride  of  silver  with  a  solution  of  common  salt. 
The  silver  is  reduced  to  a  pure  state  by  mixing  the  chloride  with 
an  equal  weight  of  bicarbonate  of  soda  and  sij^elting  in  a  common 
sand  crucible. 

ALLTbiiNUM  Silver. — The  following  alloy  is  distinguished  by 
its  beautiful  color,  and  takes  a  high  polish  :  Copper  70,  nickel 
23,  aluminum  7,  total  100. 

Babbitt  Metal. — There  are  a  large  number  of  recipes  for  this 
alloy,  but  the  following  gives  an  excellent  composition  for  gene- 
ral use  :  Tin  50  parts,  antimony  5  parts,  copper  1  part. 

Bell,  Cracked,  To  repair. — A  cracked  bell  which  gives  a  jar- 
ring sound  may  be  improved  by  sawing  or  filing  the  ruptured 
edges  so  that  they  are  not  brought  together  by  the  vibration  of 
the  blow. 

Boiler-tubes,  Iron,  To  preserve. — A  coating  of  red-lead  and 
boiled  linseed-oil,  applied  to  iron  boiler-tubes,  acts  as  a  great 
preservative. 

Brass,  Black  stain  for. — Arsenious  acid  2  parts,  hydrochloric 
acid  4,  sulphuric  acid  1,  water  80. 

Brass  Scrap,  To  utilize.— The  best  way  is  to  melt  it  in  with 
new  brass,  putting  it  in  with  the  zinc  after  the  copper  is  melted. 

Brass,  To  blacken. — ISIix  4  parts  hydrochloric  acid  and  1  part 
arsenic  (by  weight)  ;  put  on  bright,  dry,  and  lacquer. 

Brass,  To  clean. — Rub  bichromate  of  potash  fine,  pour  over 
it  about  twice  the  bulk  of  sulphuric  acid,  and  mix  this  with  an 
equal  quantity  of  water.  The  dirtiest  brass  is  cleaned  by  this 
in  a  trice,  ^^'ash  the  metal  immediately  after  in  plenty  water  ; 
wipe,  rub  dry,  and  polish  with  powdered  rottenstone. 

Brass,  Vert  de  Bronze  on.  To  produce. — Dissolve  2  ozs.  ni- 
trate of  iron  and  2  ozs.  hyposulphite  of  soda  in  1  pint  water. 
Immerse  the  articles  till  they  are  of  the  required  tint,  as  almost 
any  shade  from  brown  to  red  can  be  obtained  ;  then  wash  well 
with  water,  dry,  and  brush.  One  part  perchloride  of  iron  and 
2  parts  water  mixed  together,  and  the  brass  immersed  in  the 
liquid,  gives  a  pale  or  deep  olive-green,  according  to  the  time  of 
immersion.  If  nitric  acid  is  saturated  with  copper,  and  the  brass 
dipped  in  the  liquid  and  then  heated,  the  article  assumes  a  dark- 
green  color. 

Bronze  for  gongs  and  cymbals. — This  is  made  with  20  per 
cent  of  tin,  and  is  hammered  into  shape  while  at  a  red  heat  ;  it 
is  then  tough  and  malleable,  but  is  very  brittle  when  cold. 

Bronze  for  small  castings. — Fuse  together  95  part  of  copper 
and  36  parts  of  tin. 


142  PRACTICAL   TECHNOLOGY. 

Bronze,  Green. — Tlie  bluish-green  bronze  used  for  ornamental 
articles  is  made  of  any  metal,  first  covered  with  a  varnish  made 
of  ground  tin  or  bronze  powder  rubbed  up  with  honey  in  gam- 
water.  Then  wash  with  a  mixture  composed  of  sal-ammoniac 
^  oz.,  common  salt  ^  oz.,  and  1  oz.  spirit  of  hartshorn  in  1  pint 
vinegar.  After  applying  tlie  mixture,  leave  for  a  day  or  two  in 
tne  sun,  and  then,  if  necessary,  add  a  second  coat.  This  is  a 
good  way  to  renovate  old  gas-fixtures. 

Bronze,  Japanese. — A  curious  bronze  is  produced  in  Japan, 
which,  when  mad#in  thin  plates,  resembles  slate,  and  is  covered 
with  designs  in  silver.  It  contains,  in  addition  to  copper,  from  4 
to  5  per  cent  of  tin,  and  on  an  average  10  per  cent  of  lead.  The 
combination  is  easily  moulded  into  thin  plates.  Tiiese  are  var- 
nished, and  through  the  covering  the  designs  are  scratched  with 
a  burin.  The  plate  is  then  plunged  in  a  silver-bath,  when  the 
silver  is  deposited  on  the  unprotected  portions.  Lastly,  it  is 
placed  in  a  muffle-furnace,  when  the  copper  blackens  and  the 
silver  remains  bright. 

Bronzing  Hardware. — Brown  bronze  dip,  for  coating  liat- 
hooks  and  similar  small  hardwaie  articles,  is  made  of  iron  scales 
1  lb.,  arsenic  1  oz.,  muriatic  acid  1  lb.,  zinc,  solid,  10  ozs.  The 
zinc  should  be  kept  in  only  when  the  bath  is  used.  The  castings 
must  be  perfectly  free  from  sand  and  grease. 

Case-hardening,  to  be  quickly  performed,  is  done  by  the  use 
of  prussiate  of  potash.  This  is  powdered  and  spread  upon  the 
surface  of  the  iron  to  be  hardened,  after  the  iron  is  heated  to  a 
bright  red.  It  almost  instantly  fluxes  and  flows  over  the  surface  ; 
and  when  the  iron  is  cooled  to  a  dull  red,  it  is  plunged  in  cold 
water.  Some  prefer  a  mixture  of  ])russiatt'  of  potash  3  parts, 
sal-ammoniac  1  part ;  or  prussiate  1  part,  sal-amnnmiac  2  parts, 
and  iincly-powdered  bone-dust  (unburned)  2  parts.  The  appli- 
catiim  is  the  same  in  each  case.  Proper  case-hardening,  when  a 
deep  coating  of  steel  is  desired,  is  done  by  ])acklng  the  article  in 
an  iron  box  with  horn,  hoof,  bone-ilust,  shreds  of  leather  or  raw 
liide,  or  either  of  these,  and  heating  to  a  red  lieat  for  from  1  to 
3  hours,  then  plunging  the  box  into  water. 

Chain,  Strength  of. — To  ascertain  the  strength  of  short-linked 
chains:  (1)  Multiply  the  scjuare  of  the  diameter  (reckoned  in  six- 
teentlis  of  an  incli)  by  .035  ;  the  ])roduct  will  be  the  weight  the 
chain  will  support  in  tons.  ('^)  The  square  of  the  diameter  in 
eighths  of  an  inch  =  weight  of  chain  in  lbs.  ])er  fathom.  The 
s(|iiare  of  the  diameter  in  eighths  ■*■  2  =  breaking  weight  in  tons. 
Thus  for  a  chain  nnido  of  f  iron,   the  weight  =  3''  =  9  lbs.  i)er 

fathom,  and  its  breaking  weight  would  be  -2-1  =  A\  tons.    The  ut 

most  loud  i)ut  upon   it  should  not  exceed  1\  tons,  the  safe  con- 
stant load  heing  IH  to  20  cwt. 

Coloring  .Mktai.s. — Take  liyposulphito  of  soda  4  ozs.,  dis- 
Bolved  in  1\  jiiiits  of  watcir  ;  add  a  solution  of  1  oz.  acetate  of 
lead  in  sann!  (piantity  of  water.  Articles  to  be  colon-dare  placed 
in  th(!  mixtur<',  which  is  then  gradually  heated  to  boiling.  Tin- 
effect  of  the  solution  is  to  make  iron  ri-srinhle  l)lu(^  steel;  zinc 
beconii'S  brfuize,  and  cop|)er  or  brass  beconii's  successively  y(;l- 
lowish-red,  scarlet,  deep  blue,  bluish-white,    and    finally   white 


PRACTICAL    TECHNOLOGY.  143 

with  a  tinge  of  rose.  The  solution  has  no  effect  on  lead  or  tin. 
By  replacing  the  acetate  of  lead  in  the  solution  with  sulphate  of 
copper,  brass  becomes  of  a  fine  rosy  tint,  then  green,  and  finally 
of  an  iridescent  brown  color.  Zinc  does  not  cover  in  this  solution"; 
but  if  boiled  iu  a  solution  containing  both  lead  and  copper,  it  be 
comes  covered  with  a  black  crust,  which  may  be  improved  by  a 
thin  coating  ot  wax. 

Columns,  Strength  of  hollow. — The  hollow  cylinder  is  the 
strongest  form  of  section  under  compressive  force.  The  experi- 
ments by  which  this  was  proved  were  conducted  upon  hollow 
tapering  columns  of  cast-iron,  upon  cross-sections,  as  used  in  the 
connecting-rods  of  steam-engines,  and  upon  forms  in  which  the 
metal  was  cast  in  the  shape  of  the  letter  H.  All  these  forms 
proved  considerably  weaker  than  the  hollow  cylinder  of  equal 
weight  of  metal.  As  the  relative  merits  of  these  forms  of  cast- 
ing metal  are  of  constant  use,  we  append  their  proportionate 
strengths:  Hollow  cylindrical  pillar,  100;  H -shaped  pillar,  75  ; 
+ -shaped  pillar,  44.  The  examples  w-ere  all  of  the  same  weight 
and  length,  with  rounded  ends.  General  Morin's  rule  for  the 
thickness  of  cast-iron  pillars  may  be  relied  upon,  as  it  is  based 
upon  the  founder's  experience  of  the  minimum  thickness. 
Height,  feet,  7  to  10,  10  to  13,  13  to  20,  20  to  27.;  minimum 
thickness,  inch,  0.5  0.6  0.8  1.0 

Another  rule  is  to  make  the  thickness  in  no  case  less  than  ^ 
of  the  diameter.  Cellular  or  tubular  girders  exemplify  to  a  still 
greater  degree  the  value  of  hollow  construction. 

Copper  and  Brass,  Coating,  with  zinc. — Dip  the  articles  into  a 
boiling  concentrated  solution  of  sal-ammoniac  containing  finely- 
divided  zinc. 

Copper-welding. — A  good  welding  mixture  is  composed  of 
phosphate  of  soda  358  parts,  boracic  acid  124  parts. 

Crucibles. — The  best  crucibles  are  composed  of  the  following 
compositions,  which  are  of  two  kinds — namely,  with  and  without 
plumbago.  3  parts  by  measure  of  the  Stourbridge  best  crucible 
clay,  2  parts  cement,  consisting  of  old  used-up  fire-bricks,  and  1 
part  hard  coke.  These  ingredients  must  be  ground  and  sifted 
through  a  ^  in.  mesh  sieve ;  the  sieve  must  not  be  finer,  other- 
wise the  pot  will  crack.  This  composition  must  be  mixed  with 
sufficient  clean  cold  water,  trodden  with  the  bare  foot  to  the  con- 
sistency of  stiff  dough  and  allowed  to  stand  for  3  or  4  days,  well 
covered  with  damp  cloths,  to  admit  of  its  sweating  and  the  parti- 
cles of  clay  becoming  thoroughly  matured.  It  is  then  ready  for 
use,  and  must  be  blocked  by  hand  on  a  machine.  Owing  to  the 
coarseness  of  this  composition,  the  pot  can  not  w^ell  be  thrown  on 
the  potter's  wheel  ;  and  in  no  instance  can  it  be  made  by  press- 
ing. The  cruciljle  must  not  be  burnt  in  a  kiln,  but  merely  highly 
and  thoroughly  dried  before  being  placed  iu  the  furnace  for  use. 
For  brass  and  copper  melting,  it  will  stand  one  good  hard  day's 
work  ;  but  care  must  be  taken  to  replace  the  pot  again  in  the 
furnace  after  the  metal  has  been  poured.  If  the  pot  be  not  al- 
lowed to  go  cold,  it  will  last  for  several  days.  It  will,  with  the 
greatest  safety,  stand  one  melting  of  wrought-iron.  The  cost, 
when  made  on  the  steel  manufacturer's  own  premises,  is  about 


144  PRACTICAL  TECHNOLOGY. 

forty  cents  per  pot,  each  pot  holding  from  100  to  120  pounds  of 
metal.  Good  Hessian  crucibles  are  composed  of  2  parts  of  the 
best  German  crucible  clay  and  5  parts  pure  fine  quartz  sand. 
Tliis  composition  must  be  sifted  through  a  ^  in.  mesh  sieve  ;  it  is 
then  tempered  and  trodden  with  the  bare  foot,  as  before  de- 
scribed. When  ready  for  use,  it  is  pressed  into  different  sizes  of 
crucibles,  which,  when  thoroughly  dry,  are  placed  in  the  kiln  or 
furnace  and  burnt  hard. 

Another  cvrnpoKition  :  2  parts  best  Stourbridge  crucible  clay, 
3  parts  cement ;  sift  through  a  i-iu.  sieve  ;  temper  as  before  de- 
scribed and  block  by  hand  on  the  machine.  When  thoroughly 
dry,  it  is  placed  in  the  kiln  and  burnt  hard.  These  crucibles  are 
principally  used  for  melting  gold  and  silver,  and  also  for  dry 
analysis.  The  best  and  most  perfect  fire-clay  for  crucible  mak- 
ing is  nearly  always  found  in  the  pavement  of  coal.  Some  of  the 
Pittsburg  fire-clays,  and  those  found  to  exist  in  the  pavements 
of  some  of  the  Pennsylvania  coal-mines,  are  excellent  fire-clays. 
But  the  various  compositions  can  not  be  described,  as  they  are  as 
numerous  as  the  different  kinds  of  clay.  The  Birmingham  soft 
tough  ])ot  consists  of  2  parts  of  the  best  Stourbridge  crucible 
clay,  3  jiarts  plumbago,  and  1  part  cement,  consisting  of  old  used- 
up  crucibles  ground  and  sifted  through  a  \  in.  mesh  sieve. 

Another  componilion  :  4  parts  of  the  best  Stourl)ridge  crucible 
clay,  3  parts  plumbago,  2  parts  hard  coke,  and  1  part  cement, 
consisting  of  old  pots  ground  and  sifted  as  before.  Where  old 
pots  can  not  be  had,  the  above  comi)osition  must  be  burnt  hard, 
gn)und,  and  sifted.  The  scales  or  chippings  of  the  insides  of 
gas-retorts  are  far  superior  to  the  best  common  hard  coke.  But 
where  scales  and  chipiiings  can  not  bo  had,  hard  coke  is  the  best 
substitute.  All  the  ingredients  of  this  composition  must  be  sifted 
through  a  \  in.  sieve  (but  not  finer),  temi)ered,  and  made  as  be- 
fore described.  Wlicn  thoroughly  dry,  it  is  placed  in  the  kiln 
and  annealed,  but  not  burnt  hard.  This  composition  makes  a 
pf)t  (for  melting  the  hardest  metal)  which  can  not  be  melted  at 
any  ))itch  of  heat,  nor  can  it  be  crjicked  with  the  most  sudden  heat- 
ing and  cooling.  It  is  regularly  known  to  stand  14  and  IG  melt- 
ings of  iron — even  wrought-iron.  Any  steel  manufacturer  can 
make  tlie  pot  on  his  own  premises  at  a  cost  of  !j;1.20  or  there- 
abouts, the  pot  holding  from  100  to  120  lbs.  of  metal. 

Etching  upon  Stkioi,. — \N'arm  the  steel,  and  rub  on  a  coating 
of  white-wax  or  hard  tallow.  When  hard,  nnirk  the  device 
through  the  wax  with  a  shari)-point('d  tool  ;  apply  nitric  acid, 
and  allow  it  to  stand  for  a  few  minutes  ;  then  wash  off  the  acid 
ihorouglily  with  water,  heat  the  steel,  and  rub  off  the  wax  with  a 
rag.     Tlie  device  will  be  found  etched  on  the  steel. 

(ioi,D  .\Ni)  Stia'KU,  Test  for. — A  good  test  for  gold  or  silver  is 
a  jiieci)  of  lunar  caustic,  fix(!d  with  a  ])ointiMl  stick  of  wood. 
Slightly  Wet  the  nu'tal  to  Ix-  teste(l,  and  rub  it  gently  with  tin; 
caustic.  If  gold  r)r  silver,  the  mark  will  be  faint  ;  l)\it  if  an  in- 
ferior metal,  it  will  be  quite  black. 

Gi'N-Bakuiii.s,  To  bronze.  —  Clean  thoroughly,  and  ai)ply  (\^y 
iiieans  of  a  rag)  nitric  or  sulphuric  acid  dilutecl  with  its  volume 
of  water. 


PRACTICAL    TECHNOLOGY.  145 

Hardening  Pickle. — Spring-water  made  into  a  brine  strong 
enough  to  float  an  egg,  tiien  boiled  to  precipitate  the  lime,  and 
allowed  to  cool. 

Iron  Articles,  Brightening. — When  taken  from  the  forge  or 
rolls,  the  articles  are  placed  in  dilute  sulphuric  acid  (1  to  20)  for 
an  hour  ;  they  are  then  washed  clean  in  water,  dried  with  saw- 
dust, dipped  for  a  second  or  so  in  nitrous  acid,  washed  and  dried 
as  before,  and  finally  rubbed  clean. 

Iron  Rings,  Welding,  without  scaling. — Take  iron  filings 
1000  parts,  borax  500  parts,  resinous  oil  of  any  kind  50  parts, 
sal-ammoniac  75  parts.  Pulverize  completely  and  mix  ;  heat  the 
rings  to  a  cherry  red,  powder  the  parts  with  the  mixture,  and 
join  them  together. 

Iron,  Simple  fire-plating  for. — By  rubbing  the  surface  of  iron 
or  other  metals  with  soda  amalgam,  and  then  pouring  over  it  a 
concentrated  solution  of  chloride  of  gold,  the  gold  is  taken  up  by 
the  amalgamated  surface,  and  it  is  only  necessary  to  drive  off  the 
mercury  with  the  heat  of  a  large  lamp  to  obtain  a  fine  gilded  sur- 
face that  will  bear  polishing.  By  writing  or  drawing  a  design 
on  the  iron,  the  drawing  will  be  re-produced  in  pure  gold.  Silver 
and  platinum  salts  are  said  to  act  in  a  similar  manner  to  the 
gold. 

Iron,  To  gild  cast. — The  cheapest  way  is  to  use  bronze  or 
mosaic  gold.  The  castings  are  first  to  be  heated  hotter  than  the 
hand  can  bear,  but  not  so  hot  as  to  burn  the  varnish,  and  coated 
with  mosaic  gold  mixed  with  a  small  quantity  of  alcohol  varnisli. 
If  the  iron  is  polished,  it  must  be  heated  previously  and  rubbed 
over  with  a  rag  dipped  in  vinegar. 

Lead,  Determining  presence  of,  in  tiu  vessels. — The  metal  to  be 
tested  is  first  touched  with  nitric  acid  and  then  heated,  when  the 
acid  evaporates.  If  lead  be  contained,  stannic  acid  and  nitrate  of 
lead  remain.  Iodide  of  potassium  is  then  applied,  forming  yel- 
low iodide  of  lead  ;  while  the  stannic  acid  is  white.  The  yellow 
stain,  therefore,  indicates  lead,  the  white,  tin.     . 

Jewelry,  To  restore  the  lustre  of. — Take  1  oz.  cyanide  potas- 
sium and  dissolve  in  3  gills  water.  Attach  the  article  to  be 
cleansed  to  a  wire  hook,  immerse  and  shake  in  the  solution  for  a 
second  or  two,  and  remove  and  wash  in  clean  water,  then  in  warm 
water  and  soap.  Rinse  again,  dip  in  spirits  of  wine,  and  dry  in 
boxwood  sawdust.  If  the  solution  is  kept,  put  it  in  a  tightly- 
corked  bottle,  and  label  POISON  conspicuously.  One  caution  is 
necessary  :  Do  not  bend  over  the  solution  so  as  to  inhale  the 
odor,  nor  dip  the  fingers  in  it  ;  if  one  of  the  articles  drops  from 
the  hook,  better  empty  the  solution  into  another  vessel. 

Metal  Surfaces,  To  protect,  from  moisture. — Inclose  them 
in  tight  compartments  containing  lumps  of  (luicklime. 

Minerals  and  Metals,  Hardness  and  tenacity  of. — In  mine- 
ralogy, in  which  science  the  hardness  is  an  important  characte- 
ristic, ten  bodies  are  usually  taken  as  points  of  comparison — the 
softest  being  termed  1  and  the  hardest  10.  These  are :  1 ,  talc  ; 
2,  gypsum  ;  3,  carbonate  of  lime  ;  4,  fluor-spar  ;  5,  phosphate  of 
lime  ;  6,  felspar  ;  7,   quartz  ;  8,  topaz  ;  9,   corundum  ;    10,   dia 


146  PRACTICAL  TECHNOLOGY. 

niond.  Hence,  when  scientific  works  speak  of  the  hardness  of  a 
body  being 6,  8,  4,  etc.,  reference  is  made  to  the  relative  hard- 
ness expressed  by  the  list  above  given. 

The  tenacity  of  metals  is  estimated  by  the  resistance  which 
wires  of  the  same  diameter  experience  when  passed  at  etjual  tem- 
perature through  the  same  hole  of  a  draw-bench.  The  following 
table  gives  the  relative  tenacity  of  various  metals  and  alloys  : 
Steel  already  drawn,  100  ;  iron  already  drawn,  88  ;  brass  already 
drawn,  77  ;  gold  at  0.875,  annealed,  73  ;  steel  annealed,  65  ;  cop- 
per already  drawn,  68;  silver  at  0.750,  annealed,  58;  silver  at 
0.875,  54  ;  brass  annealed,  46  ;  iron  annealed,  43  ;  platinum  an- 
nealed, 38  ;  copper  annealed,  38 ;  fine  gold  annealed,  37 ;  fine 
silver  annealed,  37  ;  zinc,  34  ;  tin,  11  ;  lead,  4. 

Plathstum-Bronze. — This  is  made  of  nickel  100  parts,  tin 
10,  platinum  1.  It  is  entirely  unoxidizable,  and  especially 
adapted  for  cooking-utensils. 

Quicksilver,  Coating  iron  with. — Clean  the  iron  first  with  hy- 
drochloric acid,  then  immerse  it  in  a  dilute  solution  of  sulphate 
of  copper  mixed  with  a  little  hydrochloric  acid,  by  means  of 
which  it  becomes  covered  with  a  slightly-adherent  layer  of  cop- 
])er.  It  is  then  to  be  brought  into  a  very  diluted  solution  of  mer- 
curial sublimate  mixed  with  a  few  drops  of  hydrochloric  acid. 
The  article  will  become  covered  with  a  layer  of  mercury,  which 
can  not  be  removed  even  by  rubl)ing.  This  is  good  as  a  protec- 
tion from  rust. 

S.VDIKONS,  Finishing. — See  that  your  bufF-wlieels  are  well- 
balanced  after  they  an;  covered.  Let  the  wheel  be  covered  with 
tliicli  leather  before  covering  with  emery.  Get  as  good  a  surface 
<m  the  article  as  you  can  from  a  wheel  covered  with  No.  70  emery. 
Mix  flour  of  emery  with  melted  beeswax,  and  stir  in  till  it  is 
thick.  When  tlie  mass  is  cool,  rub  it  on  a  newly-covered  wheel 
with  No.  80  emery.  Then  set  tlu;  wheel  running,  and  hold  on  a 
flint  to  smooth  it  until  the  surface  is  sutlici<'ntly  fine  to  suit. 

SiLVKU  Orn.^ments,  Imitation. — Ordinary  i)laster  models  are 
covered  with  a  thin  coat  of  mica  powder,  which  perfectly  re- 
])laces  the  ordinary  metallic  substances.  The  mica  ])lates  are 
first  cleaned  an<l  bleai-hed  by  tire,  boiled  in  hydrochloric  acid,  and 
waslicii  iiiid  dried.  'I'lic  material  is  tlien  finely  jtowdered,  sifted, 
and  mingled  witii  collodion,  which  serves  as  a  vehich^  for  ai)i)ly- 
ing  tin?  com])ound  witli  a  paint-brush.  Tlie  objects  tlius  jjrejjar- 
ed  can  l)e  waslied  in  water,  and  are  not  liable  to  bti  injured  by 
snlphnrettcd  a<ids  or  dust.  Tlie  collodion  adheres  perfectly  to 
glass,  ])<jrcelain,  wood,  metal,  ur  pupii^r  iiKirlii'. 

Sii.VEH,  Producing  satin  finish  on,  by  sand-blast. — 'i'he  follow- 
ing isthemetiiod  adopted  at  a  large  silver-idating  establishment : 
Air  is  coin])ressed  by  the  driving  engine  of  tlx^  works  into  an  or- 
dinary reservoir,  ami  tlience  distril)utcd  tlirongli  pipes  whicli  ex- 
tend along  tlie  tront  of  the  workmen's  tallies  ;  and  alxivii  tlie  lat- 
ter is  a  sand  recejitacle,  V-sliaped,  from  which  a  stream  of  sand 
fallfl,  and  is  met  by  a  downward  blast  from  the  jilpe,  which  cur- 
rent drives  tbe  material  in  a  stream  throngli  a  small  hole  in  th(^ 
table,  beiieatli  wliich  ii  rece|itacle  to  rec-eive  tlie  sand  is  ])laced. 
'i  lie  workman,  wlio.se  fingers  are  covered  with  rubber  to  jirotect 


PRACTICAL   TECHNOLOGY.  147 

them,  holds  the  article  in  tlie  jet  and  under  the  table,  watching 
it  through  a  pane  of  glass  let  into  the  top  of  the  latter.  The 
operation  is  necessarily  very  rapid,  as  the  article  has  only  to  be 
turned  so  that  the  blast  strikes  the  required  portions,  when  the 
work  is  completed.  The  exposure  to  the  jet,  even  for  an  instant, 
would  cut  through  the  Britannia,  upon  which  the  plating  is 
afterward  deposited.  By  the  interposition  of  rubber  screens  of 
suitable  shape,  against  which  the  sand  has  no  abrading  effect,  any 
fancy  patterns  or  letters  are  easily  imprinted  on  the  surface,  the 
latter,  of  course,  being  satin-finished,  while  the  spaces  protected 
by  the  screens  are  afterward  burnished. 

Silver,  Restoring  color  to. — This  is  adapted  to  treating  silver 
filagree  ornaments,  rendering  them  dead  white.  The  process  has 
long  Ijeen  a  trade  secret.  If  any  pewter  is  found  in  the  articles, 
it  should  not  be  attempted.  Pound  together  charcoal  3  parts, 
and  of  nitre  1  ;  add  sufficient  water  to  form  a  paste.  With  a 
camel's-hair  brush  give  the  article  a  thin  coat  of  the  mixture,  put 
it  in  a  small  annealing-pan,  and  submit  it  to  the  fire  until  it  be- 
comes red-hot  ;  then  withdraw  it  from  the  fire,  let  it  stand  a  mi- 
nute, and  turn  it  out  into  a  weak  solution  of  sulphuric  acid  (1  part 
acid,  10  parts  water)  in  the  boiling-pan.  Boil,  pour  off  the  acid, 
rinse  ;  wash  with  warm  water  and  soap,  using  a  soft  brush  ;  dip 
in  spirits  of  wine,  and  dry  in  boxwood  sawdust.  If  any  spots 
should  srtll  remain  on  the  work,  anneal  it  without  the  mixture, 
boil  out  and  wash  as  before.  Burnish  the  parts  intended  to  be 
bright.  Do  not  use  the  common  American  saltpetre.  The  Eng- 
lish nitre,  although  it  costs  more,  is  really  less  expensive,  as  a 
smaller  quantity  goes  further  and  does  the  work  more  effectual- 
ly.    Purchase  at  the  wholesale  druggists. 

Silver,  To  regain,  from  broken  black-lead  crucibles. — Pulve- 
rize the  crucible  and  digest  it  in  ^nitric  acid  for  several  hours. 
Decant  off  the  clear  liquid,  and  add  to  it  muriatic  acid  until  no 
further  precipitate  forms.  Allow  to  settle,  and  again  decant  the 
clear  liquid,  wash  the  precipitate  several  times  with  clean  water, 
dry,  and  fuse  in  a  small  crucible  with  a  quantity  of  carbonate  of 
soda. 

Slag,  Utilization  of.  Prussian  method. — The  high  furnaces 
are  provided  with  a  continual  overflow  for  the  slag,  which  runs 
through  a  narrow  gutter  formed  in  the  sand  into  a  shallow  pit, 
through  which  a  small  stream  of  water  is  kept  running.  By  this 
chilling  process  the  slag  assumes  the  form  of  a  fine  gravel.  An 
endless  chain  at  once  lifts  the  slag  out  of  the  pit  and  loads  it  upon 
cars.  By  grinding  this  material  fine  in  a  cement-mill,  it  is  form- 
ed into  an  excellent  sharp  building-saiid  ;  the  great  bulk  of  it, 
however,  is  used,  without  further  reducing  its  grain,  for  making 
bricks. 

For  this  purpose  it  is  mixed  with  one  half  of  its  bulk  of  mor- 
tar in  a  trough  in  which  three  shafts  provided  with  long  blades 
are  revolving.  It  is  then  shoveled  into  the  brick-machines,  each 
of  which  turns  out  about  twenty-five  bricks  a  minute.  These  bricks 
are  piled  up  in  tlie  open  air  for  drying,  and  are  ready  for  use  after 
about  six  weeks.  They  continue  to  harden  on  exposure  to  the 
air,  and  are  said  to  possess  greater  strength  than  ordinary  burnt 


148  PRACTICAL   TECHNOLOGY. 

bricks.  They  are  extensively  used  for  all  kinds  of  buildings, 
tlieir  liglit-gray  color  producing  a  very  pleasing  effect,  and  the 
roughness  of  their  surface  fitting  them  particularly  well  for  re- 
taining a  coating  of  mortar.  They  can  not  be  used,  however,  for 
foundation  walls,  as  by  the  absorption  of  moisture  their  cohesive- 
ness  is  impaired. 

The  most  interesting  process  is  the  following  :  As  a  thin  stream 
of  the  fluid  slag,  falling  from  a  narrow  gutter,  passes  the  nozzle 
of  the  steam-pipe,  a  jet  of  steam  is  blown  through  it,  and  by  this 
simple  process  it  is  solidified  in  the  form  of  most  delicate  fibres, 
resembling  asbestos  or  spun  glass  ;  and  it  falls  to  the  ground  like 
a  loose  mass  of  grayish  wool.  This  material  is  an  excellent 
non-conductor  of  heat,  and  is  used  for  covering  steam-pipes,  boil- 
ers, etc.  The  sole  expenditure  in  its  manufacture  is  that  of  the 
steam,  the  exact  amount  of  which  could  not  be  ascertained. 
The  material  is  sold  for  about  $5  per  cwt.  The  steam-pipe  is 
about  1^  inches  in  diameter,  and  the  nozzle  is  simply  a  pipe,  flat- 
tened and  then  curved  into  a  semicircular  form,  in  order  to  give 
the  most  advantageous  shape  to  the  steam-jet.  The  steam  used 
has  a  pressure  of  about  50  lbs.  per  square  inch. 

Soldering  Liquid. — Into  hydrochloric  acid  place  as  much 
scrap-zinc  as  it  will  dissolve,  still  leaving  a  sponge  of  zinc.  Use 
the  mixture  for  soldering  brass-work.  To  solder  cast  or  wrought 
iron,  add  sal-ammoniac  ;  and  for  sheet-tin  work, omit  the  sal-am- 
moniac. 

Solder,  Jewelers'. — Melt  1  part  lead,  add  2  parts  tin,  and 
throw  in  a  small  bit  of  resin  as  a  flux.  This  is  strong,  easily 
flowing,  and  white.  In  soldering  flne  work,  w(»4  the  parts  to  be 
joined  with  muriatic  acid  in  which  as  much  zinc  has  been  dissolv- 
ed as  the  acid  will  take  up.  It  is  cleaner  than  the  old  method  of 
using  Venice  turpentine  or  resin. 

Solder,  Silver. — Put  into  a  clean  crucible,  silver  2  parts,  clean 
brass  1  part,  with  a  small  ])iece  of  borax.  Melt  and  pour  into  in- 
gots. Solder  made  from  coin,  as  it  frecjuently  is,  often  meets 
with  difficulty  around  the  joints,  requiring  the  use  of  the  file  to 
remove!  it,  while  the  addition  of  any  of  the  inferior  metals  to  the 
Bolder  causes  it  to  eat  into  the  article  joined  by  it. 

Sthkl  and  Iron,  To  clean,  from  tcmponiry  and  sliglit  rust. — 
Cocoanut  husks  are  better  than  wastes  and  turpentine. 

Steel,  Ciihome. — This  metal  is  not  only  one  third  stronger 
than  any  other  steel,  but  can  be  produced  at  a  small  c^ist,  from 
the  fact  that  when  worn  out,  as  in  a  steel-headed  rail,  it  has  a 
market  value,  as  it  can  be  made  over  again,  which  is  not  Mie  case 
with  Bessemer  or  any  other  cast-st<'cl.  It  will  also  weld  without 
borax  or  flux,  and  when  burnt  can  be  redeemed  on  the  next  heat. 

Steel,  PoLisirED,  To  bronze. — To  1  pint  methylated  spirits 
add  4  ozs.  gum  shellac  and  k  oz.  gum-benzuin  ;  i)Ut  the  l)(>ttle  in 
a  warm  place,  shaking  it  orcuHionaliy.  When  dissolved  and  set- 
tled, decant  tlie  clear  licjuid  and  keep  it  for  line  work.  Strain  tlie 
residue  tlirough  a  fine  cloth.  Take  i  lb.  powdered  bronze gre(>n, 
varying  to  suit  the  taste  with  lanii)bla('k,  red  ochre,  or  yellow 
ochre.  Take  as  mucli  varnish  and  bronze-ixiwder  as  required, 
and   lay  it  on  the  article,  wliich   must   be  tlioroughly  clean  and 


PRACTICAL    TECHl^OLOGY.  149 

slightly  warm.     Add  another  coat  if  necessary.     Touch  up  with 
gold-powder  according  to  taste,  and  varnish  over  all. 

Steel,  Protecting,  from  rust. — ParafEne  is  the  best  material 
for  polished  steel  or  iron. 

Steel  Rails,  Cutting. — Remarkable  results  have  been  obtain- 
ed with  a  disk  made  from  a  rail-saw  and  rotated  at  3000  revolu- 
tions per  minute.  As  the  disk  was  9.6  feet  in  diameter,  the  velo- 
city of  its  circumference  was  in  the  neighborhood  of  86,400  feet 
per  minute.  Steel  rails  were  cut  with  astonishing  rapidity,  and 
even  melted.  Millions  of  sparks  were  thrown  off,  but  no  heating 
of  the  disk  could  be  detected  after  the  cutting. 

Tin,  Crystallization  of. — A  platinum  capsule  is  covered  with  an 
outer  coating  of  parafRne  or  wax,  leaving  the  bottom  only  unco- 
vered. This  capsule  is  set  upon  a  plate  of  amalgamated  zinc  in 
a  porcelain  capsule.  The  platinum  is  then  filled  completely  full 
of  a  dilute  and  not  too  acid  solution  of  chloride  of  tin,  while  the 
porcelain  is  filled  with  water  acidulated  with  ^  of  hydrochloric 
acid,  so  that  its  surface  comes  in  contact  with  the  surface  of  the 
liquid  in  the  platinum.  A  feeble  electric  current  is  set  up,  which 
reduces  the  salt  of  tin.  The  crystals  formed  after  a  few  days  are 
well  developed.     They  are  washed  with  water  and  dried  quickly. 

Tin,  Removing,  from  copper  vessels. — Immerse  the  articles  in 
a  solution  of  blue  vitriol. 

Tin,  Removing,  from  plates  without  acid. — Boil  the  scrap-tin 
with  soda  lye  in  presence  of  litharge. 

Welding  Powders  for  iron  and  steel. — (1)  Iron  filings  1000 
parts,  borax  500,  balsam  copaiva,  or  other  resinous  oil,  50,  sal- 
ammoniac  75.  Mix  together,  heat,  and  pulverize.  Weld  at  cher- 
ry-red. (3)  Borax  15  parts,  sal-ammoniac  2,  cyanide  of  potas- 
sium 3.  These  constituents  are  dissolved  in  water,  and  the  wa- 
ter itself  afterward  evaporated  at  a  low  temperature. 

Zinc,  Black  color  for. — Clean  the  surface  with  sand  and  sul- 
phuric acid,  and  immerse  for  an  instant  in  a  solution  of  sulphate 
of  nickel  and  ammonia  4  parts,  in  water  40  parts,  acidulated  with 
sulphuric  acid  1  part.  Wash  and  dry.  This  takes  a  bronze 
color  on  burnishing. 

Zinc  Labels,  Ink  for  writing  on. — (1)  Verdigris  1  oz.,  sal-am- 
moniac 1  oz.,  lampblack  i  oz. ,  water  I  pint  ;  mix  well  in  a  mor- 
tar, and  shake  before  using.  Write  with  a  quill.  (3)  One  drachm 
chloride  of  platinum  dissolved  in  }  pint  water. 

Zinc,  Painting. — Use  a  mordant  of  chloride  of  copper  1  part, 
nitrate  of  copper  1,  sal-ammoniac  1,  dissolved  in  water  64.  Add 
hydrochloric  acid  (comrnercial)  1.  This  brushed  over  the  zinc 
sheets  gives  them  a  deep  black  color,  turning  grayish  after  dry- 
ing, in  from  13  to  34  hours.  A  coat  of  oil-color  will  adhere  to 
this  surface  and  withstand  weather  excellently. 

Zinc-White,  To  restore. — This  may  be  done  by  ignition  in  ai; 
earthen  crucible. 


150 


PRACTICAL   TECHNOLOGY. 


SIMPLE   IXSTRrMENTS   AND  THEIR   USES. 

Balance,  Simple  spring. — A  is  a  deal  stand  13  by  3  inches  ; 
B  is  a  bard-wood  block  firmly  attached  to  A  ;  C  is  a  spring; 
D  is  an  index-pillar  ;  E  is  a  scale-holder  ;  F  is  a  small  bent  piu 
to  hold  the  spring  steady  while  changing  the   scale-pan.     The 


>1M1'LK    )1AI..\N<.E. 

spring  C  should  be  very  fine  steel  wire,  bent  over  so  as  to  form 
a  loop  near  the  index  for  E  to  hook  into.  The  index  is  a  slip  of 
card  sot  out  with  a  fine  pen.  The  scale-pan  is  of  thin  letter- 
paper,  circular,  and  folded  like  a  filter-paper,  as  indicated  by  tlie 
dotted  line.  With  this  minute  fractions  of  a  grain  can  be  re- 
cognized. 

B.VKO.METER,  To  make  a  cheap. — Obtain  a  straight  fine  glass 
tube,  about  33  inches  long,  and  with  as  clean  an  interior  as  possi- 
ble, sealed  at  one  end,  and  having  an  even  uniform  bore  of  about 
2j  lines  diameter.  The  mercury  to  be  used  irhould  be  perfectly 
pure  and  free  from  all  air  and  moisture.  This  latter  requisite 
may  be  assured  by  heating  the  mercury  in  a  ])orcelain  dish  to 
nearly  tli*;  boiling-i)oint,  previous  to  using  it.  The  tube  is  then 
held  securely,  with  the  ojjen  end  up])ermost,  and  carefully  filled 
with  the  ru|uid  metal.  The  open  end  of  the  tube  is  then  securely 
covered  with  the  linger,  the  tube  inverted,  and  the  end  covered 
hy  tht!  finger  ])luMge(l  below  the  surface  of  a  little  mercury  placed 
in  a  small  vessel  to  receive  it.  The  finger  is  then  removed,  when 
the  nuircury  in  the  tube  will  immediately  fall  to  a  h'vel  of  about 
30  ini'hes  above  the  surfac«^  of  that  in  the  small  reservoir  below. 
In  order  to  attach  the  scale  correctly,  it  will  he  necessary  to  com- 
pare the  indications  with  those  of  some  good  instrument. 

BAKOscorK,  To  make  a. — Take  any  bottle  ;  pour  colored  wafer 
into  it,  about  ',  of  the  (juantity  the  bottle  will  lK)ld  ;  insert  in  it  a 
glass  tub<\  from  3  to  4  feet  long,  and  passing  air-tight  through 
the  stop]>er,  which  must  also  Ix?  airtight.  Let  a  paper  index, 
divided  according  to  any  scale  of  division,  say  into  inches  and 
fractions  of  uu  incli,  be  glued  to  the  glass  lube,     lilow  inio  the 


PRACTICAL   TECHNOLOGY. 


151 


glass  tube  so  as  to  cause  the  water  to  ascend  tlie  tube  a  few  inches, 
say  10  inches,  and  the  instrument  is  constructed.  The  bottle 
must  be  placed  in  another  vessel,  and  protected  by  sawdust,  or 
some  other  material,  from  the  influence  of  changes  in  the  tempe- 
rature of  the  atmosphere.  This  very  sensitive  instrument  records 
faithfully  any  change  in  the  density  of  the  external  air,  and  the 
approach  of  a  storm  will  infallibly  be  indicated  by  a  sudden  rise 
of  the  water  in  the  glass  tube. 

Camera,  Wonder,  How  to  make  a. — A  wonder  camera  is  a 
sort  of  magic  lantern,  so  contrived  as  to  enable  one  to  use  opaque 
objects  for  projection  upon  the  screen  instead  of  glass  transparen- 
cies. For  example,  if  a  photograher  wishes  to  show  his  customer 
how  an  enlargement  from  a  carte  will  look,  he  simply  has  to  put 
the  carte  in  the  wonder  camera,  and  "  throw  it  up."  Many  en- 
largement-scales may  be  made  in  this  way.  It  consists  of  a 
wooden  box,  with  a  top  made  of  tin  or  sheet-iron  ;  the  chimney 
is  made  of  the  same  material.  The  lens  is  the  same  as  used  upon 
a  camera  for  making  photographs.  At  the  back  of  the  box  (as 
will  be  seen  by  reference  to  the  elevation  and  plan,  Figs.  2  and  3) 
are  two  doors  placed  upon  hinges. 

When  the  box  is  in  use,  the  door  e  is  kept  closed.  The  other 
door  consists  of  two  parts  placed  at  right  angles  to  one  another  ; 


Fig.  1. 


Fig.  2. 


A  ■WO'TTDEB  CAMERA. 


the  object  of  this  is  to  fill  the  opening  in  the  door  e  while  the 
pictures  are  being  attached  to  c  ;  w^hen  c  is  swung  into  position 
opposite,  the  lens,  placed  at  h  d,  is  carried  to  one  side.  If  stereo- 
scopic views  are  to  be  shown,  a  slit  may  be  cut  at  e,  through 
which  they  may  be  inserted  with- 
out opening  the  box.  The  door  e 
should  be  cut  off  a  little  at  the 
bottom,  so  as  to  admit  air.  The 
light  is  placed  at  7^  as  nearly  oppo- 
site the  picture  as  possible.  It 
should  be  a  strong  light  ;  an  ar- 
gand  burner  is  the  best.  At  the 
back  of  the  light  is  a  piece  of  tin, 
bent  into  the  form  of   a  reflector.  Fig-  3. 

The  light  coming  from  h  strikes  c,  and  is  reflected  through 
the  lens  upon  the  screen.  The  plan  of  the  box  is  represent- 
ed with  the  top  removed.  No  dimensions  are  given,  as  they 
will  depend   upon  the  focal  distance  of  the  lens  and  height  of 


152  PRACTICAL   TECHNOLOGY. 

the   light.     Care  must  be  used  to  have  the  distance  from  the 
lens  to  c  when  closed  equal  to  the  focal  distance. 

Electrical  Machine,   A  simple. — A  B,  in  the  annexed    en- 


S 

A   SIMPLE  ELECTRICAL  MACHINE. 

graving,  is  a  glass  tube  fixed  at  one  end  in  a  wooden  handle. 
The  rubber,  with  its  flap,  D,  carries  a  little  Leyden  jar,  the 
end  of  which  is  visible  at  F.  This  jar  is  coated  inside  and 
out  with  a  resinous  insulating  compound,  and  the  metallic  lining 
of  the  inside  of  the  jar  is  in  contact  with  the  brass  collecting- 
ring,  E.  The  handle  being  held  in  one  hand  and  the  rubber  in 
the  other,  when  the  tube  is  rubbed  the  little  ring  and  jar  rapidly- 
collect  electricity.  A  i  inch  spark  and  smart  shock  may  be  readily 
obtiiined  from  this  apparatus,  the  length  of  the  spark  depending 
upon  the  amount  of  rubbing  each  time  before  the  jar  is  dis- 
charged. When  it  is  not  desired  to  take  the  shock  through  the 
human  body,  the  jar  may  be  discliarged  by  means  of  the  metallic 
cord,  H. 

Electuical  Orrery,  to  accompany  the  above  machine. — This 
is  represented  below.      It   is   balanced   on  a  pivot  at  F.     The 


ELECTRICAL  ORRERY, 


light  hollow  brass  ball.  A,  represents  the  sun,  and  pith  balls,  B 
and  D,  the  earth  and  moon,  rotating  about  the  pivot  E.  The 
metallic  i)oints  jn'ojecting  troni  H  and  1)  (in  opposite  directions, 
of  course)  cause  thfse  to  rotati-  round  each  other  ;  but  the  lever- 
age of  the  ])oint  I)  b(!ing,  from  its  position,  greater  than  the 
leverage  of  B,  it  sets  the  long  arm  of  the  orrery  in  rotation  uj)on 
tlu'  pivot  F. 

(J.m.vanometku,  To  make  a  8imi)le. — Take  an  ordinary  pocket- 
coMipasB  and  wind  100  feet  of  No.  18  insulated  copper  wire 
iiroimd  it. 

Kai.kidoscopk,  To  make  a. — Take  two  strips  of  glass,  8  or  10 
in.  long,  1  to  \\  in.  l)road  at  one  end  and  nbout  \  as  l)r<)ad  at  the 
oth(!r.  Hhu-ken  one  side;  of  each  witli  black  varnish.  Put  two 
HMiootli  straight  edges  together,  and  form  a  hinge  by  gluing  a 
strip  of  clotli  over  tlir  two  edges.      Make  the  angle  between  the 


PRACTICAL   TECHNOLOGY.  153 

Strips  of  glass  an  aliquot  part  of  180%  as  20°,  SO*',  or  45°.  Cover 
the  open  side  of  the  triangular  prism  with  black  velvet.  Place 
in  a  tin  or  pasteboard  tube  so  that  the  angle  of  the  smaller  end  of 
prism  is  nearly  in  the  centre.  Cover  top  of  tube  with  clear  glass, 
and  cover  this  with  paper,  except  a  small  hole  in  centre.  In  bot- 
tom of  tube,  form  a  cell  by  placing  two  pieces  of  glass  i  in.  apart 
(the  lower  one  of  ground  glass).  In  this  cell  place  fragments  of 
broken  colored  glass,  beads,  etc.  They  must  be  capable  of  free 
movement  in  the  cell  when  the  tube  is  turned  in  the  hand. 

Leyden  Jar,  To  make  a  cheap.— Line  a  thin  glass  candy-jar 
inside  and  outside  with  tin-foil,  such  as  is  used  to  wrap  chew- 
ing-tobacco in.  Stick  the  foil,  on  with  mucilage,  varnish,  or 
flour  paste.  A  still  cheaper  plan  is  simply  to  fill  a  glass  jar  nearly 
full  of  water,  and  place  it  within  another  vessel  of  water,  so  that 
the  water,  both  outside  and  inside,  shall  be  on  the  same  level. 

Magic-Lantern  Slides,  Painting.  Four  methods. — (1)  Use 
transparent  colors,  like  Prussian  blue,  gamboge,  and  carmine. 
These  will  give  the  three  primary  colors,  and  by  their  mixture, 
the  other  tints.  Apply  witli  a  brush,  and  a  transparent  drying 
varnish,  like  dammar  varnish.  Allow  one  coat  to  dry  before  ap- 
plying a  second.  Considerable  aid  can  be  derived  from  stippling, 
the  color  being  strengthened,  where  necessary,  by  applying  it 
with  the  point  of  a  fine  brush.  The  colors  must  not  be  used  too 
thin.  (2)  Flow  the  glass  plate  with  albumen,  after  the  manner 
of  photographers,  and  paint  with  aniline  colors.  This  process 
gives  great  softness  and  brilliancy  to  the  pictures,  but  they  are 
apt  to  fade.  (;J)  Paint  with  water-colors,  and  then  flow  the  entire 
surface  with  Canada  balsam,  covering  the  painted  side  with  a 
glass  plate.  (4)  Use  water- colors,  but  mix  them  with  turpentine 
instead  of  water,  and  work  rapidly. 

Meridian,  To  find  the.— Mr.  George  W.  Blunt  says  :  _"  Take  a 
piece  of  board,  or  any  similar  material,  and  describe  on  it  a  num- 
ber of  concentric  circles.  Place  this  in  the  sun  ;  over  the  centre 
hang  a  plummet.  Observe  the  shortest  shadow  from  the  plum- 
met ;  the  sun  will  then  be  on  the  meridian  ;  draw  a  line  to  the 
centre  of  the  circle,  and  that  will  be  the  true  meridian-line.  This 
will  do  to  mark  the  apparent  time,  or  to  correct  the  compass  for 
variation." 

Mirrors,  Globe,  To  make. — Melt  together  1  oz.  clean  lead  and 
1  oz.  of  fine  tin  in  a  clean  iron  ladle  ;  then  immediately  add  1  oz. 
Insmuth.  Skim  off  the  dross,  remove  the  ladle  from  the -fire,  and 
before  it  sets  add  10  ozs.  quicksilver  ;  now  stir  the  whole  care- 
fully together,  taking  care  not  to  breathe  over  it,  as  the  fumes  of 
mercury  are  very  pernicious.  Pour  this  through  an  earthen  pipe 
into  the  glass  globe,  which  turn  repeatedly  around. 

Pipes,  Determining  proportions  of. — The  instrument  consists 
simply  of  a  piece  of  wood  shaped  like  a  set- square,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  1,  or  a  diagram  of  the  same  form  drawn  on  paper,  and  di- 
vided out  along  the  two  edges,  which  are  at  right  angles  to  each 
other,  the  divisions  being  taken  to  represent  inches,  feet,  or  yards, 
etc.,  according  to  the  kind  of  work  for  which  the  instrument  is 
used.     Suppose  that  two  pipes,  A  and  B,  Fig.  2,  respectively  5  iu. 


154 


PRACTICAL   TECHNOLOGY. 


and  U  in.  in  diameter,  deliver  into  a  third  pipe,  D,  and  it  be  re- 
quired to  find  the  proper  diameter  fortlie  latter  pipe.  Then  from 
5  on  the  scale  of  one  of  the  divided  edges  to  4^  on  the  other. 


FIG.I 


APPARATUS  FOR  DETERMINING  THE  DLAMETER  OP  PIPE8. 

draw  a  line,  as  shown  dotted  in  Fig.  1,  and  the  length  of  this 
line  measured  with  tlif^  saiiu^  scale  as  that  to  which  the  edges  are 
divided,  will  be  the  diameter  of  pipe  re(iuin'(l  ;  in  this  case,  6 J 
in.  On  the  other  hand,  if  a  pipe,  D,  GJ  in.  in  diameter,  be  deliver- 
ed into  a  pipe.  A,  5  in.  in  diameter,  and  it  was  required  to  know 
what  other  size  of  pipe,  B,  could  also  be  8up])lie(l,  all  that  would  bo 
necessary  woiilil  l)e  to  take  the  division  ])oiMt  5  on  one  edge  as  a 
centre,  and,  with  (Ji{  in.  as  a  radius,  describe  an  arc  cutting  the 
other  divided  edge.  The  point  at  which  tlm  latter  edg((  was  cut 
by  this  arc  would  show  the  diameter  of  ])ipe  required. 

Hifi-k-Tki,ks('OPK,  To  make  a. — Object-glass  should  belialf  an 
in.  in  diameter,  focus  24  in.,  or  as  long  as  convenient.  Kye-])iece 
may  be  a  single  lens  of  low  ])()\ver  with  cross  spider  lines  fixed  in 
its  focus.  The  target  will  then  appear  invc^rted.  The  lenses  are 
inch)S(;d  in  a  l>rass  tube  with  a  hiiigoor  ball  joint  at  the  breech  or 
eye-piece  end,  and  slides  at  tlie  muzzle,  to  depress  tln^  ol)ject  glass 
for  increased  elevation.  'i"he  two  ]>(iints  of  attachment  to  the  bar- 
rel are  the  same  as  for  ordinary  fore-and-leaf  sights. 

TELKHCorE,  To  make  a  cheap. — A  correspondent  says:  "  1  ee- 


PRACTICAL   TECHNOLOGY.  155 


lected  a  meniscus  1  in.  in  diameter  and  of  48-iu.  focus.  This  was 
for  my  object-glass.  I  bad  already  in  my  possession  a  two-lensed 
double-convex  jeweler's  eye-glass  ;  one  of  tbese  lenses  was  used 
for  the  eye-piece,  its  focal  leugtb  being  a  trifle  over  1  in.  The 
tube  was  made  of  pine-wood.  A  piece  of  straight,  evenly-grained 
one-in.  pine  board,  2  in.  wide  and  8  feet  long,  was  cut  in  the  mid- 
dle, and  the  two  pieces,  after  making  a  tapering  semicircular 
groove  in  eacli,  well  glued  together.  This  done,  the  next  thing 
was  to  give  it  a  round,  tapering  form,  2  in.  in  diameter  at  one  end, 
and  a  trifle  over  an  iucli  at  the  other.  This  was  done  with  a  com- 
mon carpenter's  plane.  I  now  had  a  tube  4  feet  long,  with  a  ta- 
pering bole  througb  its  length,  and  1^  in.  in  diameter  at  its  larg- 
est end.  Two  wooden  cells  for  the  lenses  were  then  turned  in  a 
lathe,  and  were  made  to  go  on  to  tbe  tube,  as  does  the  cover  of  a 
wooden  pill-box.  A  round  bole,  the  size  of  the  lens,  was  made 
in  each,  the  meniscus  being  contracted  to  f  in.,  and  the  e_ye-glas3 
to  ^  in.  diameter.  The  piece  carrying  the  eye-glass  Avas  made  so 
as  to  slide  some  distance  on  the  tube,  for  adjustment  to  distinct 
vision.  The  tube  was  painted  and  varnished,  and  mounted  equa- 
torially  ;  and  it  proved  to  be  a  good  instrument,  showing  Jupiter's 
moons,  their  movements  and  eclipses,  handsomely,  the  ring  of 
Saturn,  the  horned  appearance  of  Venus,  the  mountains  and  cra- 
ters on  the  moon,  the  spots  on  the  sun,  etc.  Several  of  the  nebu- 
lae were  also  visible,  especially  those  in  Andromeda,  Orion,  Her- 
cidea,  and  Sagittarins.  The  whole  need  not  cost  over  two  dollars, 
beside  the  time  in  making,  provided  one  is  a  mechanic. 

"  The  meniscus  (concave  on  one  side  and  convex  on  the  other) 
is  the  proper  form  for  a  single-lens  object-glass,  and  a  plano-con- 
vex lens  makes  the  best  form  for  the  eye-piece.  Care  must  be 
taken  to  so  set  the  lenses  in  their  cells  that  their  foci  will  meet 
centrally.  When  this  is  the  case,  the  lenses  are  said  to  be  well 
centred,  and  in  that  way  we  get  rid  of  most  of  the  prismatic 
color.  Another  point  that  wants  attention  is  the  mounting.  Ab- 
solute steadiness  is  required  for  close  observation.  I  used  to  put 
mine  upon  a  post  set  firmly  in  the  ground.  The  equatorial  ar- 
rangement for  mounting  is  described  in  nearly  every  work  on 
telescopes." 

Thermometers,  Hard-rubber. — This  instrument  has  been  made 
by  riveting  the  rubber  to  a  thin  strip  of  steel,  about  a  foot  in 
length  and  J  in.  in  width.  The  bottom  of  this  was  held  fast, 
while  the  top  was  free  to  move,  and  so  to  indicate  the  temperature 
on  a  graduated  arc.  This  one,  now  in  use,  has  a  range  from  zero 
to  90°  Fahr.,  and  is  as  sensitive  as  the  common  mercurial  thermo- 
meter. It  is  well  adapted  for  the  ordinary  range  of  the  atmo- 
sphere, but  is  not  suitable  for  indicating  high  degrees  of  heat, 
as  the  rubber  softens  at  about  200°  Fahr.  Another  thermometer 
was  made  by  perforating  a  thin  strip  of  steel,  at  intervals  of  an 
inch,  and  placing  upon  it  a  strip  of  rubber  compound  when  in  a 
plastic  state.  This  was  coiled,  with  an  intermediate  strip  of  me- 
tal, which  forced  the  rubber  through  the  holes  It  was  then  vul- 
canized in  the  usual  manner  ;  and  when  cold,  the  intermediate 
strip  was  withdrawn,  leaving  an  open  space  between  the  coils. 
Tills  saved  the  trouble  of  riveting,  and  gave  to  the  rubber  an  un- 
broken and  smooth  surface.     The  coil  is  held  last  at  the  centre, 


156  PRACTICAL    TECHNOLOGY. 


and  the  outer  end  is  left  free  to  move.  Another  thermometer  was 
made  of  glass  and  hard  rubber,  the  latter  in  the  form  of  an  arc, 
being  riveted  at  both  of  its  ends  to  a  glass  plate,  which  formed 
the  chord. 

Thermometers. — To  change  Fahrenheit  degrees   into   Centi- 

_,      ^     5  (F.-33)      ^,      .       ^    .       .^  ,        ,    .    „     9  C.  .   „„ 

grade:  C.= .     Centigrade  mto  Fahrenheit:  F.=—- — ^  32. 

y  5 

9R. 

Reaumur    into    Fahrenheit  :     F.= '-I-  32.       Fahrenheit    into 

4     ' 

Keaumur  :  K.  = •     Keaumur  into  Centigrade  :  C.  =  — — • 

4C. 
Centigrade  into  Reaumur  :  R.=-r- 

0 


RECIPES  FOR  THE  PREPARATION  OF  WOOD. 

Dyeing  Woods. — All  light  woods  may  be  died  by  immersion. 
A  fine  crimson  is  made  as  follows  :  Take  1  lb.  ground  Brazil,  boil 
in  3  quarts  of  water,  add  ^  oz.  cochineal,  and  boil  another  half 
hour  ;  may  be  improved  l)y  washing  the  wood  previously  with  ^ 
oz.  saffron  to  1  quart  water.  The  wood  should  be  pear  wood  or 
sycamore.  Purple  satin  :  1  lb.  logwood  chips,  soak  in  3  quarts  of 
water,  boil  well  an  hour  ;  add  4  ozs.  pearlash,  2  ozs.  powdered 
indigo.  Black  may  be  produced  by  copperas  and  nutgalls,  or 
by  japanning  with  two  coats  of  black  japan,  after  which  varnish 
or  polish,  or  use  size  and  lanii)l)l!ick  j)r<!vions  to  laying  on  ja- 
pan. A  blue  stain  :  1  lb.  oil  of  vitriol  put  in  a  glass  bottle  with  4 
ozs.  indigo  ;  lay  on  the  same  as  black.  A  lino  green  :  3  pints  of 
the  strongest  vinegar,  4  ozs.  best  powdered  verdigris  (poison),  ^ 
oz.  sap-green,  ^  oz.  indigo.  A  bright  yellow  may  be  stained  with 
aloe  ;  the  whole  may  be  varnished  or  i)olishcd. 

F^iJONY,  Artificial. — Treat  sea-weed  for  2  hours  in  dilute  sul- 
l)]iuric  acid.  Of  the  charcoal  thus  obtained  taki^  16  parts  ;  dry,  and 
grind  it.  Add  licjuid  glue  10  parts,  giitta-])erclia  5,  india-rub- 
ber 2J-,  the  last  two  dissolved  in  naphtha,  'i'hen  add  coal-tar  10, 
))ulverized  Hulphiii-  5,  piilveriz(>d  alum  2,  j)ow(len'(l  resin  5,  and 
iieat  tlic!  mixture  to  300'  Fahr.  This  when  hard  will  take  a  pol- 
isli  equal  to  ebony,  and  is  the  same  in  color  and  liardnesa. 

Oak,  To  color  orange-ycdlow. — Wuh  thv.  wood  with  a  mixture 
of  tallow  3  ozs.,  wax  !j  oz.,  and  turpfnlinc  1  pint,  mixed  by  heat- 
ing together  and  stirring.  A])i)ly  in  a  warm  room  until  n  dull 
polish  is  aci|uin(|.  Thi-n  coat,  after  an  lK)ur,  with  thin  polish,  and 
repeat  until  the  dcsiicd  depth  and  brilliancy  of  tone  is  obtained. 

ScKKWs,  WoitiiK.N,  To  season. — Bore  a  liole  longitudinally 
through  tlm  centre  of  the  scniw  ;  it  will  not  In-  ii\>i  to  crMck  so 
badly  in  seasoning,  l)ecause  then  the  air  can  g«it  to  tlie  centre  of 
the  wood,  tiie  sap  t  scapes  therefrom,  the  centre  of  the  wood  con- 


PRACTICAL   TECHNOLOGY.  157 

tracts,  and  tlie  strain  on  the  outside  is  lessened.  Of  course,  the 
larger  the  hole.the  better  for  the  seasoning  process  ;  but  it  should 
not,  and  need  not, be  large  enough  to  materially  weaken  the  screw. 
If,  in  addition,  you  can  boil  the  screw  in  water,  the  job  will  be 
bettered  ;  if  boiled  in  oil,  it  will  be  complete. 

Veneers,  Artificial,  To  make. — Soak  the  wood  for  24  hours, 
»and  boil  for  ^  liour  in  a  10  per  cent  solution  of  caustic  soda.  Then 
wash  out  the  alkali,  when  the  wood  will  be  elastic,  leather-like, 
and  ready  to  absorb  the  desired  color.  After  immersion  in  the 
color-bath,  dry  between  sheets  of  papex  under  sufficient  pressure 
to  preserve  the  shape. 

Veneers,  Steaming. — Blocks  of  wood  intended  for  veneers 
may  be  steamed  in  a  solution  of  borax  and  ammonia.  They  will 
then  become  soft  and  easy  to  cut,  and,  beside,  will  retain  their 
flexibility  for  a  long  time. 

Wood,  A  liquid. — Sawdust  can  be  converted  into  a  liquid 
wood,  and  afterward  into  a  solid,  flexible,  and  almost  indestruc- 
tible mass,  which,  when  incorporated  with  animal  matter,  rolled, 
and  dried,  can  be  used  for  the  most  delicate  impressions,  as  well 
as  for  the  formation  of  solid  and  durable  articles,  in  the  following 
manner  :  Immerse  the  dust  of  any  kind  of  wood  in  diluted  sul- 
phuric acid,  sufficiently  strong  to  affect  the  fibres,  for  some  days  ; 
the  finer  parts  are  then  passed  through  a  sieve,  well  stirred,  and 
allowed  to  settle.  Drain  the  liquid  from  the  sediment,  and  mix 
the  latter  with  a  proportionate  quantity  of  animal  offal,  similar 
to  that  used  for  glue.  Roll  the  mass,  pack  it  in  moulds,  and  al- 
low it'to  dry. 

Wooden  Labels,  Preservation  of. — Thoroughly  soak  the  pieces 
of  wood  in  a  strong  solution  of  sulphate  of  iron  ;  then  lay  them, 
after  they  are  dry,  in  lime-water.  This  causes  the  formation  of 
sulphate  of  lime,  a  very  insoluble  salt,  in  the  wood.  The  rapid 
destruction  of  the  labels  by  the  weather  is  thus  prevented.  Bast, 
mats,  twine,  and  other  substances  used  in  tying  or  covering  up 
trees  and  plants,  when  treated  in  the  same  manner  are  similarly 
preserved.  Wooden  labels,  thus  treated,  have  been  constantly  ex- 
posed to  the  weather  during  two  years  without  being  affected 
thereby. 

Wooden  Taps,  Preserving,  for  Casks. — The  articles  should  be 
plunged  in  paraffine,  heated  to  about  248°  Fahr.  until  no  air-bub- 
bles rise  to  the  surface  of  the  melted  material.  They  are  then  al- 
lowed to  cool,  and  the  paraffine  is  removed  from  the  surface,  when 
nearly  congealed,  by  thorough  rubbing.  Ta[)S  thus  treated  will 
never  split  or  become  impregnated  with  the  liquid,  and  may  be 
used  in  casks  containing  alcoholic  liquors. 

Wood,  Brown  stain  for. — Paint  the  wood  over  with  a  solution 
made  by  boiliug  1  pint  catechu  (cutch  or  gambler)  with  30  pints 
water  and  a  little  soda.  Dry,  and  then  paint  over  with  a  solution 
of  bichromate  of  potash  1  pint,  water  30  pints.  By  a  little  dif 
ference  in  the  mode  of  treatment,  and  by  varying  the  strength 
of  the  solutions,  various  shades  of  color  may  be  given  to  these 
materials.  The  colors  will  be  permanent,  and  will  tend  to  pre- 
serve the  wood. 


158  PRACTICAL   TECHNOLOGY. 

Wood,  Preserving. — This  process  is  valuable  for  rail way-slei.p- 
ers.  Steam  the  timber,  and  inject  a  solution  of  silicate  of  soda 
for  8  hours.  Then  soak  the  wood  for  the  same  period  in  lime- 
water.     (Dr.  Feuchtwauger's  process.) 

Wood,  Preservative  ])reparation  for. — Mix  40  parts  chalk,  50 
resin,  4  linseed-oil,  melting  them  tt)gether  in   an  iron  pot  ;  then 
add  1  part  of  native  oxide  of  copper,  and  afterward   1  part  of 
sulphuric  acid.     Apply  with   a   brush.     When  dry,  this  varnish* 
is  as  hard  as  stone. 

Wood,  To  ebonize. — Collect  lampblack  from  a  lamp  or  candle  on 
a  piece  of  slate.  Scrape  off  the  deposit,  mix  with  French  polish, 
and  apply  to  the  object  in  the  ordinary  way. 

Wood,  To  fire-proof. — Paint  twice  over  with  a  hot  saturated 
solution  of  1  part  green  vitriol  and  3  parts  alum.  After  drying, 
paint  again  with  a  weak  solution  of  green  vitriol  in  which  pipe- 
clay has  been  mixed  to  the  consistence  of  paint. 


THE  PREPARATION  AND  PRESERVATION  OF 
NATURAL-HISTORY  SPECIMENS. 

Anatomical  Specimens,  Preserving. — Glycerine  will  preserve 
the  natural  colors  of  marine  animals  kept  immer.<od  in  it. 

BiKDS,  Stuffing. — The  following  tools  are  required  (see  Fig.  1). 
— First,  there  is  the  scalpel.  This  can  be  purchased  for  a  small 
sum  from  any  maker  of  surgeon's  instruments.  The  blade  is 
short  and  very  .sharp,  while  the  handle  (not  jointed)  is  long 
enough  to  allow  of  a  firm  grasp.  From  the  same  maker,  a 
couple  of  jiairs  of  surgeon's  scissors  should  also  be  obtained,  one 
quite  small  and  sharp -pointed,  the  oth(>r  of  medium  size  ;  also 
two  or  three  spring  forceps  of  various  dimensions.  A  small  pair 
of  pliers  for  clip])ing  wire  is  required,  some  8])ools  of  cotton 
(Xos.  10,  ;}0,  and  100),  a  quantity  of  excelsior  and  tow,  some  cot- 
ton batting,  a  little  i)re]>iire(l  glue,  a  number  of  jjieces  of  wire 
about  fifteen  inclies  long,  and  straight  (.size  No.  20  or  there- 
abouts), a  box  of  dry  oatmeal,  and  some  ar.senical  soap.  This 
last  can  generally  l)e  obtained  of  druggists,  or,  if  not,  can  be 
mad<!  of  carl)onatc  of  pota.sh  '.]  ounces,  white  arsenic,  white  soap, 
and  air-slaked  lime,  1  ounce  each,  and  jiowdered  camphor,  -?g 
of  an  ounce,  'i'liis  is  combined  into  a  thick  ])aste  with  water, 
and  ai)])lied  us  below  descriWeii,  with  a  small  paint-brush.  It 
should  be  nuirked  as  poison,  and  kept  scruimlously  out  of  the 
reiicli  of  children  or  pet  animals. 

If  th(!  i)inl  has  been  shot,  immediately  afterward  all  the  holes 
made  in  its  hody,  as  well  as  the  mouth,  sliould  l)e  plugged  with 
cotton,  in  order  to  prevent  the  escape  of  blood  or  lupiids.  Opera- 
tions should  not  lie  begun  for  twenty  four  liours,  so  that  the  l)ody 
may  havt;  ample  time  t(»  .stilleu  and  the  blood  to  coagulate.     It  is 


PRACTICAL    TECHNOLOGY. 


159 


well  during  this  period  to  inclose  the  bird,  head  downward,  in  a 
cone  of  paper,  so  that  the  feathers  will  be  held  smooth. 

The  first  process  is  skinning.  In  commencing,  the  left  hand  is 
used  to  part  the  feathers,  exposing  the  skin  from  the  apex  of  the 
breast-bone  to  the  tail.  With  the  scalpel  held  like  a  pen,  a  free 
incision  is  made  between  these  points,  care  beinpf  taken  to  divide 
the  skin  only,  without  cutting  into  the  flesh.  The  skin  is  then 
pressed  apart,  and  oatmeal  dusted  into  the  cut,  in  order  to  absorb 
any  fluids  which  may  escape.  Careful  lifting  of  the  skin  clear 
of  the  flesh  follows,  until  the  leg  is  reached,  when  the  scalpel  is 
again  used  to  disarticulate  the  thigh-joints.  The  bone  of  each 
thigh  is  then  exposed  for  its  whole  length,  by  pushing  back  the 
skin,  and  the  meat  removed,  when  the  bone  is  replaced,  and  the 
other  thigh  treated  in  similar  manner. 


PIG.    1.— TAXIDERMICAL   IJIPLEMENTS. 


The  skin  is  next  detached,  to  the  wings,  which  are  cut  from 
the  body  at  the  joint  next  the  same,  and  the  bones  scraped  clear 
of  meat.  Then  the  neck  is  divided,  so  that  the  skin,  with  the 
head  attached,  can  be  peeled  from  the  entire  body  clear  to  the 
root  of  the  tail.  The  last  is  bent  toward  the  back  with  the  left 
hand,  the  finger  and  thumb  keeping  down  the  detached  parts  of 
the  skin  on  each  side  of  the  vent.  A  deep  cut  is  then  made 
across  the  latter  until  the  back-bone,  near  the  oil-gland  at  the 
root  of  the  tail,  is  exposed.  Sever  tlie  back-bone  at  the  joint. 
This  detaches  the  body,  which  may  be  removed  and  thrown 
aside,  while  the  root  of  the  tail,  with  the  oil-gland,  is  left.  Great 
care  is  needed  in  this  operation,  as,  if  not  enough  bone  be  left  at 


160 


PBACTICAL   TECHNOLOGY. 


its  root,  the  tail  will  come  out ;  but  all  fleshy  matter  should  be 
neatly  dissected  away. 

The  neck  need  not  be  split  or  in  any  wise  cut.  The  skin  is 
merely  pulled  over  the  flesh,  as  a  glove  is  removed  from  the 
finger,  until  the  skull  is  exposed  and  appears  as  in  the  sketch, 
Fiji.  2.  With  the  point  of  the  knife,  remove  the  ears  ;  and  on 
reaching  the  eyes,  carefully  separate  the  lids  from  the  eyeballs, 
cutting  neither.  It  requires  very  delicate  and  slow  work  at  this 
point,  so  as  not  to  injure  the  eyelids.  Then  scrape  out  the  eye 
cavities,  and  cut  away  the  flesh  of  the  neck,  removing:  at  the 
same  time  a  small  portion  of  the  base  of  the  skull.  Through 
the  cavity  thus  made  extract  the  tongue  and  brains,  and  after 
cleaning  away  all  fleshy  matter,  paint  the  eye  orbits  with  arseni- 


FIO.    2.  — MODK   OK    ATTACmNci    THE    FALSE    BODT 

ciil  soap,  and  stuff  them  tightly  with  cotton.  Care  should  be 
taken  not  to  detach  the  skin  from  the  l)ill,  as  it  is  necerisary  to 
leiivr- the  skull  in  ))lace.  Finally,  fill  the  interior  of  the  skull 
wiili  tow  (never  with  cotton),  aft(^r  coating  internally  with  the. 
j)repiired  soap. 

Tlie  skinning  operation  being  now  c()m])lcted,  the  stuffing  is 
next  proceeded  witli.  To  pnipare  for  this,  the  bird,  before  being 
skinned,  sliould  liave  been  measured,  first  as  to  its  girth  about 
the  liody,  and  second  as  to  its  h;ngth  from  root  of  tail  to  top  of 
skull,  following  tile  sliajjc  of"  tlu^  form.  From  these  data  an  arti- 
ficial hody  of  the  right  dimensions  is  constructed  and  inserted  as 
follows:  On  a  piece  of  straight  wire,  e<|ual  in  length  to  the  la,st 
uieasurement  above  jur-ntioned,  a  hunch   of  exc(dsior  is  secured 


PRACTICAL   TECHNOLOGY. 


161 


bv  repeated  -windinof  with  stout  thread.  This  bundle,  which  is 
represented  iu  our  Fig.  2,  is  moulded  to  a  shape  resembling  that 
of  the  bird's  body,  and  its  girth  is  regulated  by  the  similar 
measurement  already  obtained  from  the  bird  itself.  As  will  be 
seen,  it  is  attached  at  the  end  of  the  wire,  the  long  protruding 
portion  of  which  serves  as  a  foundation  for  the  neck.  The  ex- 
tremity of  the  wire  is  clipped  by  the  pliers  to  a  sharp  point,  and 
then  forced  diagonally  upward  through  the  skull,  on  top  of 
which  it  is  clinched  flat.  Cotton  batting  is  then  wound  about  the 
wire  between  skull  and  body,  until  sufficient  thickness  is  obtain- 
ed to  fill  the  skin  of  the  neck.  The  position  of  the  various  parts 
at  this  point  is  represented  in  Fig.  2.  Painting  the  inside  of  the 
skin  with  arsenical  soap  follows,  and  then  the  skin  is  drawn  back 
so  as  to  envelop  the  false  body,  and  a  needle  and  thread  are 
thrust  through  the  nostrils  to  make  a  loop  for  convenience  in 
haudlinor. 


FIG.    3. — STUFFING    THE   LEGS. 


The  finest  pair  of  forceps  is  employed  to  pull  the  eyelid  skin 
into  place,  to  arrange  the  feathers,  and  to  pull  up  the  cotton  in 
the  orbits  so  as  to  stuff  the  cavities  out  plumply.  More  cotton  is 
next  pushed  down  the  throat  until  the  same  is  entirely  filled. 
Two  pieces  of  wire — quite  stout  for  large  bird— are  then  sharp- 
ened at  one  extremity.  Taking  the  wire  in  one  hand  and  guid- 
ing it  with  the  other,  the  operator  shoves  it  into  the  leg,  from 
the  ball  of  the  foot  up  alongside  the  thigh  bone,  the  skin  being 
turned  back  for  the  purpose.  Cotton  is  then  wound  about  both 
wire  and  bone,  in  order  to  fill  the  thigh  out  naturally,  and  the 
same  process  is  repeated  for  the  other  side.  The  ends  of  the 
wire  below  are  left  protruding  in  order  to  support  the  bird  on  a 
perch,  if  such  be  desired.  The  upper  ends  are  pushed  clean 
through  the  artificial  body,  from  below  up,  and  clinched  on  the 


162 


PRACTICAL,   TECHNOLOGY. 


upper  side.  This  secures  the  legs,  which  are  afterward  bent  in 
natural  position  (Fig.  3).  The  bird  can  now  be  set  up — that  is, 
the  wires  stretching  out  below  the  claws  can  be  wound  about  a 
perch  or  pushed  through  holes  in  a  board  and  clinched  on  the 
under  side.  In  the  latter  case,  it  will  be  necessary  to  spread  the 
claws  and  fasten  them  with  pins.  For  small  birds,  the  cut  in 
the  bi-east  need  not  be  sewn  uj)  ;  a  chicken  or  larger  fowl  will 
require  a  few  stitches  to  hold  the  edges  together.  If  the  tail 
feathers  are  to  be  spread,  a  wire  is  thrust  across  the  body  and 
throuorh  each  feather,  holding  all  in  the  proper  position.  The 
wings  are  then  gathered  closely  into  the   body,   and  two  wires. 


no.    4. — 'llli:    I'.IKl)    l-KKCAKKI)    FOle    DllYINO. 


one  from  each  side,  are  ])iishc(I  in  diagonally  from  ui>,  down,  and 
through  the  skin  of  tlu'  second  joint  (Fig.  4).  The  wings  are 
tliiis  held,  and  tln'  wires,  as  Wfll  as  tliat  tliiougli  the  tail,  are  left 
protruiling  for  an  inch  or  more.  A  tnuchof  glue  within  the  eycv 
lidH  ])rej)areH  the  latter  for  the  eyes.  These  must  hi?  purchased 
from  taxidermists,  but  for  small  birds  <'ommon  bla<'k  beads  will 
aiis\v<;r.  If  plain  glass  beads  can  lie  nhtaincid,  by  the  aid  of  a 
little  piiint  the  student  can  easily  imitate  the  ey('  of  a  diickeii. 
.After  tli(!  eyes  ai'e  insertcMl,  a  sliai|)  needle  is  used  to  pull  the 
lids  around  them  and  into  pliKe. 

'{"he  <)|i(?rator  must  now,  with   a  line  pair   of    f(»rceps,    carefully 


PRACTICAL   TECHNOLOGY.  163 

adjust  the  feathers,  smoothing  them  down  with  a  large  camel's- 
hair  brush.  This  done,  thread  must  be  wound  over  the  body 
very  loosely,  beginning  at  the  head,  and  continuing  until  all  the 
feathers  are  securely  bound.  The  bird  is  then  left  to  dry  for  a 
day  or  two,  when  the  thread  is  removed,  the  ends  of  wire  cut  oif 
close  to  the  body,  and  the  work  is  complete. 

Entomological  Specimens,  To  preserve,  from  insect  ravages. 
— Place  crystals  of  carbolic  acid  throughout  the  cabinets,  and  the 
evaporation  of  the  crystals  will  keep  them  thoroughly  saturated 
with  carbolic  acid  vapors,  which  will  kill  all  living  insects  therein. 

Fish,  To  mount  and  preserve. — It  is  impossible  to  preserve 
the  iridescent  tints  ot  the  living  specimens  ;  but  before  proceed- 
ing to  the  operation  of  skinning,  it  may  be  stated  that  the 
scales,  as  well  as  their  color,  may  be  preserved  to  a  certain  de- 
gree by  applying  tissue-paper  to  them,  which,  from  the  natural 
glutinous  matter  which  covers  the  scales,  will  adhere  firmly  ; 
this  being  allowed  to  remain  until  the  skin  has  dried,  may 
easily  l)e  removed  by  moistening  with  a  damp  cloth.  All  small 
fish  should  be  mounted  in  section,  while  the  larger  varieties  may 
be  preserved  entire.  Supposing  the  fish  to  be  of  such  a  size  as 
to  be  mounted  in  section,  first  it  is  necessary  that  it  be  as  fresh 
as  possible,  as  the  scales  will  become  detached  if  decay  set  in. 
Place  the  fish  on  one  side,  and  cover  the  side  uppermost  with 
tissue-paper,  as  above  stated ;  also  extend  the  fins  by  means  of 
the  same,  and  allow  them  to  remain  a  few  moments  until  fixed 
and  dry.  Haviug  provided  yourself  with  a  damp  cloth,  spread  it 
smoothly  upon  tlie  table,  and  place  the  fish  upon  it,  papered  side 
down.  With  the  dissecting  scissors,  cut  the  skin  along  an  oval 
line,  following  the  contour  of  the  body,  but  a  little  below  the  ex- 
treme dorsal  edge  and  a  little  above  the  ventral  one,  and  remove 
the  skin  included  within  this  line.  The  remaining  skin  must 
now  be  detached  from  the  flesh,  beginning  at  the  head  and 
separating  it  downward  toward  the  tail.  The  spine  must  be 
severed  close  to  the  head,  and  also  at  the  tail,  and  the  entire  body 
removed.  All  the  flesh  having  been  taken  from  the  skin,  and  the 
eyes  removed,  the  inside  must  be  wiped  out  and  the  preservative 
(arsenical  soap)  applied.  The  skin  should  now  be  filled  with 
tow,  very  evenly  placed.  When  filled,  it  should  be  laid,  with 
the  open  side  down,  upon  a  board  of  proper  dimensions,  and 
fastened  to  it  by  small  tacks,  beginning  at  the  head  and  fastening 
the  edges  downward  toward  the  tail.  It  should  then  be  set  aside 
to  dry.  The  paper  is,  after  drying,  removed,  and  eyes  of  wood 
(painted  to  the  proper  colors,  and  not  varnished)  are  inserted 
with  a  little  putty.  Finally  the  skin  should  receive  a  coat  of 
colorless  varnish,  when  the  specimen  is  ready  for  the  cabinet. 

Sea-Weed,  Preserving  specimens  of. — The  best  time  to  col- 
lect is  when  the  tide  has  just  commenced  to  flow,  after  the  low- 
est ebb,  as  the  sea  weeds  are  then  floated  in,  in  good  condition. 
All  specimens  should  be  either  red,  green,  purple,  black,  or 
olive  ;  no  others  are  worth  preservation. 

Mounting  is  done  by  immersing  a  piece  of  paper  just  below 
the  surface  of  the  water,  and  supporting  it  by  the  left  hand  ; 
the  weed  is  then  placed  on  the  paper  and  kept  in  its  place  by  the 


164  PRACTICAL    TECHIVOLOGY. 

left  tliumb,  while  the  right  hand  is  employed  in  spreading  out 
the  branches  with  a  bone  knitting-needle  or  a  camel's-hair  pen- 
cil. If  the  branches  are  too  numerous,  which  will  be  readily 
ascertained  by  lifting  the  specimen  out  of  the  water  for  a  mo- 
ment, pruning  should  be  freely  resorted  to,  by  cutting  off  erect 
and  alternate  branches,  by  means  of  a  sharp-pointed  pair  of  scis- 
sors, close  to  their  junction  with  the  main  stem.  When  the 
specimen  is  laid  out,  the  paper  should  be  raised  gradually  in  a 
slightly  sloping  direction,  care  being  taken  to  prevent  the 
branches  from  running  together.  The  delicate  species  are  much 
improved  in  appearance  by  reimmersing  their  extremities  before 
entirely  withdrawing  them  from  the  water.  The  papers  should 
then  be  laid  Hat  upon  coarse  bibulous  paper,  only  long  enough  to 
absorb  superfluous  moisture.  If  placed  in  an  oblique  direction, 
the  branches  are  liable  to  run  together.  They  should  be  then 
removed  and  placed  upon  a  sheet  of  thick  white  blotting-paper, 
and  a  piece  of  washed  and  j^ressed  calico  placed  over  each  speci- 
men, and  then  another  layer  of  thin  blotting-paper  above  the 
calico.  Several  of  these  layers  are  pressed  in  the  ordinary  way, 
light  pressure  only  being  used  at  first.  The  papers,  but  not  the 
calico,  may  be  removed  in  six  hours,  and  afterward  changed 
every  24  hours  until  dry.  If  the  calico  be  not  washed,  it  fre- 
quently adheres  to  the  algiP,  and  if  the  calico  be  wrinkled  it  pro- 
duces corresponding  marks  on  the  paper.  The  most  convenient 
sizes  of  paper  to  use  are  those  made  by  cutting  a  sheet  of  paper, 
of  demy  size,  into  16,  13,  or  4  equal  pieces.  Ordinary  drawing- 
paper  answers  the  pur]iose  very  well.  For  the  herbarium,  each 
species  should  be  mounted  on  a  separate  sheet  of  demy  or  cart- 
ridge size.  Toned  paper  shows  off  the  specimens  well,  a  neutral 
tint  answering  best  for  the  olive,  pink  for  the  red,  and  green  for 
the  green  series. 

Skins  of  Small  Animals,  Dyeing. — The  green  hull  of  the 
European  walnut  is  turned  to  account  in  Euro])e  for  dyeing  furs 
black,  and  the  hull  of  (lur  black  walnut  could  probably  be  simi- 
larly emi)loyed.  The  walnut  hull  is  crushed  and  the  juice 
squeezed  out  from  the  ])ulp,  with  the  addition  of  a  little  water. 
A  small  (juantity  of  lime  is  added,  and  the  dye  is  ready  for  use. 
The  color  is  extremely  difficult  of  extraction,  and  attaches  itself 
very  readily  to  any  kind  of  hair,  and  it  is  used  extensively  as  a 
hair-dye. 

Sti'FFIN*;  small  Quadtutpeds. — Begin  by  making  a  longi- 
tudinal incision  between  the  hind  legs,  extending  (juite  back  to 
tlie  vent,  the  hair  having  been  carefully  i)artcd  so  that  it  may 
not  be  cut.  Do  not  cut  into  the  abdominal  cavity.  The  skin 
can  now  be  separated  from  the  flesh  and  turned  back  as  far  as 
the  tliigli,  whicli  is  sfvircd  at  the  joint.  When  this  is  done  on 
botli  sides,  tliir  gut  should  bo  drawn  out  and  severed  at  a  short 
(lisiance  from  tlie  vent.  The  tail  should  also  l)e  disjointed  at  the 
root.  Tills  being  done,  the  skin  can  be  loosened  around  the 
body  until  the  fore-legs  are  reached,  when  they  also  should  be 
dissevered.  Tlie  skinning  now  proceeds  along  the  neck  until 
t!ie  skull  is  reiiched.  Here  <-nnsiderable  care  is  necessary  to  re- 
move the    skin    without  damage  to    the  ears,  eyelids,  and  lii)H. 


PRACTICAL   TECHNOLOGY. 


165 


The  skin  is  left  attached  to  tlie  skull ;  when  the  operation  has 
proceeded  far  enough  to  expose  the  muscles  of  the  jaws,  the 
skin  must  be  separated  from  the  body  at  the  first  joint  of  the 
neck.  The  tongue,  eyes,  and  muscles,  remaining  attaclied  to 
the  head,  are  now  to  be  carefully  removed,  and  the  brain  taken 
out  from  an  opening  in  the  back  of  the  skull  cut  through  for 
that  purpose.  To  make  this  opening,  amateurs  can  use  a  small 
gimlet  or  bit  with  very  small  animals,  and  a  large  one  as  cir- 
cumstances may  demand.  The  legs  are  now  to  be  skinned  out 
quite  down  to  the  claws,  which  completes  the  o^jeration  of  skin- 
ning. During  tlie  entire  process,  all  fluids  escaping  must  be  im- 
mediately soaked  up  with  cotton.  As  soon  as  the  skin  is  re- 
moved, it  should  be  thoroughly  rubbed  with  arsenical  soap,  not 
omitting  the  inside  of  the  skull  and  mouth  cavities. 

The  following  explanation  of  stuffing  relates  to  a  small  ani- 
mal such  as  the  squirrel.  Provide  yourself  with  cotton,  tliread, 
and  twine,  also  stuffing-forceps,  a  pair  of  pincers,  a  file,  and 
•wire-cutters.  With  the  aid  of  the  forceps  (a  pair  of  slender- 
jawed  pliers),  supply  the  various  muscles  of  the  face  and  head 
by  inserting  cotton  both  through  the  mouth  and  eyelids.  Take 
annealed  iron  wire  and  cut  off  6  pieces  :  No.  1,  two  or  three 
inches  longer  than  the  total  length  of  the  body  ;  Xos.  2  and  3 
for  the  fore-legs  ;  Kos.  4  and  5  for  the  hind-legs  ;  each  of  these 
should  be  three  inches  longer  than  the  limbs  they  are  to 
support  ;  No.  6,  for  a  support  for  the  tail,  of  the  same  propor- 
tionate length  as  the  others.  With  a  large  pair  of  scissors,  cut 
fine  a  c[uannty  of  tow,  and  with  this,  by  the  use  of  the  long 
forceps,  stuff  the  neck  to  its  natural  dimensions.  Taking  wire 
No.  1,  bend  it  in  four  small  rings,  the  distance  between  the  two 
outer  representing  the  length  of  the  body  taken  from  the  skin, 
a,  leaving  one  long  end  for  a  support  to  the  head  and  neck,  b  (see 


STUFFING  ANIMALS. 


figure).  Mould  tow  about  that  part  containing  the  rings,  and, 
by  winding  it  down  with  thread,  form  an  artificial  body. 
Sharpen  the  projecting  end  of  the  wire  to  a  fine  point  with  the 
file,  and  insert  it  up  through  the  tow  in  the  neck,  and  thence 
through  the  skull  ;  the  skin  should  then  be  pulled  over  the 
body.  Wires  No.  2  and  3  are  placed  next  in  position  by  insert- 
ing them  through  the  soles  of  the  feet,  up  within  the  skin 
of  the  leg,  and  through  the  body  of  tow,  until  they  appear  upon 
the  opposite  side.  With  the  pincers,  bend  over  the  end  of  each, 
forming  a  hook  ;  the  wires  must  then  be  pulled  backward,  thus 
fastening  the  hooks  firmly  into  the  body.  The  loose  skin  of  the 
limbs  should  then  be  stuffed  with  cut  tow,  taking  care  to  imitate 
the  muscles  of  the  living  subject.  Nos.  4  and  5  can  be  fixed  in 
position  after  the  same  manner,  unless  the  animal  is  to  rest  en- 


loG  PRACTICAL    TKCUNOLOGY. 


tirely  upon  its  rear  (as  in  tlie  case  with  the  squirrel  feeding) ;  then 
the  wire  must  be  inserted  at  the  tarsal  joint  instead  of  at  the 
sole  of  tlie  foot.  If  any  depressions  appear  in  the  skin,  they 
must  be  stuffed  out  witli  cut  tow.  Wire  No.  C  should  now  be 
inserted  at  the  tip  of  tlie  tail,  and  forced  down  within  the  skin, 
hooking  it  into  the  body  in  the  same  manner  as  the  leg-wires. 
Stuff  the  tail  to  its  proper  dimensions  with  cut  tow,  and  care- 
fully sew  up  the  incision  along  the  abdomen.  Having  i)repared 
a  board  about  f  inch  thick,  pierce  in  it  two  holes  at  the  proper 
distance  apart  for  the  reception  of  the  wires  (four  holes  will  be 
needed  if  the  animal  is  to  stand  on  all  extremities)  ;  these  must 
be  drawn  through  upon  the  under  side  until  the  feet  rest  close 
upon  the  upper  surface,  when  they  should  be  clinched.  The 
different  joints  of  the  limbs  can  now  be  imitated  by  bending 
the  wire  at  the  jiroijor  i)oints.  The  eyes  should  next  be  placed 
in  position,  and  cemented  in  the  orbits  by  a  little  putty.  Care 
should  be  taken  in  arranging  the  eyelid,  for  the  expression  de- 
pends altogether  upon  this  point.  Clip  off  any  superfluous  wire 
which  may  extend  above  the  head  with  the  wire-cutters.  The 
specimen  should  be  placi^d  In  some  locality  free  from  moisture, 
and  allowed  to  dry  thoroughly,  when  it  is  complete  for  the  cabi- 
net. 


PAINTING,   GILDING,  AND   VARNISHING   RE- 
CIPES. 

Baij-OON  Varnishes. — Mr.  John  Wise,  the  well-known  aero- 
naut, says  :  "  There  are  two  ways  of  preparing  linseed-oil  for  bal- 
loon varnish  :  llu;  (juick  and  the  slow  process.  The  first  is  by 
heating  the  oil  up  to  a  temju'rature  at  which  it  will  ignite  spon- 
taneously. In  order  to  secure  it  from  burning  up,  it  must  be 
lieated  in  an  iron  or  copper  vessel,  witli  a  lid  that  can  be  closed 
when  it  begins  to  omit  dense  white  vapcir.  If  it  is  desired  to 
have  it  fast  drying,  from  4  to  G  ozs.  litharge  per  gallon  should  be 
boiled  in  it.  Tliis  process  takes  about  one  hour,  ami  renilers  the 
oil  thick  and  tougli,  giving  a  good  body  and  glossy  surface  to 
theclolh.  The  slow  jjtoccss  is  to  bi)il  tlu-  oil  from  12to  20  hours, 
keeping  it  at  a  temperature  of  alxiut  200  Fahr.,  incorporating 
witli  it,  while  boiling,  i  oz.  suljdiate  of  manganese  to  each  gal- 
lon of  oil.  These  varnishes  should  l)e  api)H(d  to  the  cloth  tole- 
rably hot.  Tln're  are  other  formulas,  sucli  as  the  incorporation 
with  the  oil  of  snine  birdlime.  (Jum-elastic  is  also  used  to  give 
lli(!  oil  body  and  ehistlcity.  NVlien  I  desirt!  to  make  a  balloon 
extraordinarily  close,  I  give  it  a  (irst  coating  of  c(  nipound  varnish 
made  ii]i  of  ('(pial  parts  whitis  glue  and  glyc(;rine." 

JiKONZK,  (Joi.i),  for  furniture. — (fold  bronze  for  furniture  is  a 
mixture  of  copal  varnish  mixi,'d  with  gold-colon^d  bronze-powder. 
The  last  is  bisulphatc  of  tin. 

BiUHiiKs,  Care  of  varni.shing. — A  good   way  to  keep  brushes 


PRACTICAL    TECHNOLOGY.  167 

is  to  suspend  them  by  the  handles  in  a  covered  can,  keeping  the 
points  at  least  half  an  inch  from  the  bottom,  and  apart  from  each 
other.  The  can  should  be  filled  with  slowly-drying  varnish  up 
to  a  line  about  i\  inch  above  the  bristles  or  liair.  The  can  should 
I  hen  be  kept  in  a  close  cupboard,  or  in  a  box  fitted  for  the  pur- 
pose. As  wiping  a  brush  on  a  sharp  edge  will  gradually  split 
the  bristles  and  cause  them  to  curl  backward,  and  eventually 
ruin  the  brush,  the  top  of  the  can  should  have  a  wire  soldered 
along  the  edge  of  the  tin,  turned  over,  in  order  to  prevent  injury. 
Finishing  brushes  should  not  be  cleansed  in  turpentine,  except  in 
V'xtreme  cases.  When  taken  from  the  can,  prepare  them  for  use 
by  working  them  out  in  varnish ;  and  before  replacing  them, 
eleanse  the  handles  and  binding  in  turpentine. 

Colors,  Naturally  transparent. — These  are  terra  de  sienna, 
asphaltum,  dragon's  blood,  carmine,  rose-pink,  chemical  brown, 
all  the  lakes,  gamboge,  and  all  the  gums.  Semi-transparent  :  um- 
ber, Vandyke  brown,  chrome  red,  emerald  green,  Brunswick 
green,  ultramarine,  indigo,  and  verdigris.  Transparent  colors  j.re 
purer  if  ground  in  water  ;  allow  them  to  settle,  pour  off  the  top 
part  of  the  settlings  :  mix  that  with  more  water  ;  let  it  settle,  and 
take  the  top  half  of  that,  which  will  be  free  from  all  sand  and 
grit.  Turpentine  makes  transparent  colors  work  crumbly. 
Bleached  boiled  oil  or  white  varnish  is  the  best  vehicle  for  flow- 
ing evenly. 

Gilding  without  a  Battery. — Dissolve  20  grains  chloride 
of  gold  in  a  solution  of  cyanide  of  potassium,  1  oz.  to  1  pint  pure 
water.  Put  the  solution  of  cyanide  of  gold  in  a  glass  or  porce 
lain  jar  ;  place  in  it  the  articles  to  be  gilded  in  contact  with  a 
piece  of  bright  zinc,  in  the  solution  near  them  ;  the  process  will 
he  hastened  by  a  gentle  warmth.  If  the  gold  is  deposited  on  the 
zinc,  rub  a  little  shellac-varnish  on  it.  The  chloride  of  gold 
may  Ije  prepared  by  dissolving  gold  in  aqua  regia  in  the  propor- 
tions of  16  grains  gold  to  1  oz.  acid,  and  evaporating  to  dryness. 

Gilding  on  Glass. — Mix  powdered  gold  with  thick  gum- 
arabic  and  powdered  borax  ;  with  this  trace  the  design  on  the 
glass,  and  then  bake  it  in  a  hot  oven.  The  gum  is  thus  burned 
and  the  borax  vitrified,  and  at  the  same  time  the  gold  is  fixed 
on  the  glass.  To  make  powdered  gold,  rub  down  gold-leaf  with 
pure  honey  on  a  marble  slab.  Wash  the  mixture,  and  the  pre- 
cipitate is  the  gold  used. 

Japan,  Black  and  flexible. — Take  burnt  umber  4  ozs. ,  asphal- 
tum 2  ozs.,  boiled  oil  2  qts.  ;  dissolve  the  asphaltum  first  in  a 
little  oil,  using  moderate  heat;  then  add  the  umber  (ground  in  oil), 
and  lastly  the  rest  of  the  oil,  and  incorporate  thoroughly.  Thin 
with  turpentine. 

Loom-Harness,  Varnish  for. — Mix  linseed-oil  2  gals.,  gum- 
shellac  2i  lbs.,  litharge  2  lbs.,  red-lead  1  lb.,  umber  1-|  lbs., 
sugar  of  lead  1^  lbs. 

Machinery,  Painting. — The  following  colors  contrast  hand- 
somely :  1.  Black  and  warm  brown.  2.  Violet  and  pale  green. 
3.  Violet  and  light  rose-color.  4.  Deep  blue  and  golden  brown. 
5.  Chocolate  and  bright  blue.     6.  Deep  red  and  gray.     7.  Maroon 


168  PBA.CTICAL   TECHNOLOGY. 

and  warm  green.  8.  Deep  blue  and  pink.  9.  Chocolate  and  pea- 
green.  10.  Maroon  and  deep  blue.  11.  Claret  and  buflf.  13. 
Black  and  warm  green. 

M.AJiBLE,  To  stain. — Blue,  solution  of  litmus  ;  green,  wax  col- 
ored with  verdigris  ;  yellow,  tincture  of  gamboge  or  turmeric  ; 
red,  tincture  of  alkanet  or  dragon's  blood  ;  crimson,  alkantjt  in 
turpentine  ;  flesh,  wax  tinged  with  turpentine  ;  brown,  tincture 
of  logwood  ;  gold,  equal  parts  of  verdigris,  sal-ammoniac,  and 
sulphate  of  zinc  in  fine  powder. 

Paint  without  oil. — Break  an  egg  into  a  dish  and  beat  slight- 
ly. Use  the  white  only,  if  for  white  paint  ;  then  stir  in  coloring 
matter  to  suit.  Red-lead  makes  a  good  red  paint.  To  thin  it, 
use  a  little  skimmed  milk.  Eggs  that  are  a  little  too  old  to  eat 
will  do  for  this  very  well. 

Paint,  Reddish-brown,  for  wood. — The  wood  is  first  washed 
with  a  solution  of  1  lb.  cupric  sulphate  in  1  gallon  water,  and 
then  with  4  lb.  potassium  ferrocyanide  dissolved  in  1  gallon  wa- 
ter. The  resulting  brown  cupric  ferrocyanide  withstands  the 
weather,  and  is  not  attacked  by  insects.  It  may  be  covered,  if 
desired,  with  a  coat  of  linseed-oil  varnish. 

Paint  to  stand  the  action  of  hot  water. — Clean  the  metal 
with  turpentine  or  benzine.  Then  mix  white-lead,  carriage-var- 
nish, and  spirits  of  turpentine,  and  give  the  metal  two  thin  coats, 
and  then  a  thick  coat  of  white-lead  and  carriage-varnish,  applied 
as  quickly  as  possible. 

PcTTY,  Inde.structible. — Boil  4  lbs.  brown  umber  in  7  lbs. 
linseed-oil  for  2  hours  ;  stir  in  2  ozs.  wax  ;  take  from  the  fire, 
and  mix  in  Hi  lbs.  chalk  and  11  lbs.  white-lead,  and  incor- 
porate thoroughly. 

Iron  Sukfaces,  Painting. — In  mixing  paints  for  iron  surfaces, 
it  is  of  the  first  importance  that  the  best  materials  only  be  used. 
Linseed-oil  is  the  best  medium,  when  free  from  admixture  with 
turpentine.  A  volatile  oil,  like  turpentine,  can  not  be  used  with 
advantage  on  a  non-absorbent  surface  like  that  of  iron,  for  the 
rea.sf)n  tliat  it  leaves  the  j»aint  a  dry  scale  on  the  outside,  which, 
having  no  cohesion,  can  be  readily  crumbled  or  washed  away. 
Linseed-oil,  on  the  other  liand,  is  peculiarly  well  adapted  for  this 
purpose.  It  df)es  not  evaporate  in  any  perceptible  dejfree,  but  the 
large  percentage  of  linolein  which  it  contains  combines  with  the 
oxygen  of  the  air,  and  forms  a  solid,  translucent  substance,  of  resi- 
nous appearance,  which  possc.-^sj's  much  toughness  and  elasticity, 
and  will  not  crack  or  blister  by  reason  of  the  expansion  and 
contraction  of  the  iron  witli  variations  of  temperature.  It  is, 
moreover,  remarkably  adhesive,  is  impervious  to  water,  and  is 
very  difficult  of  solution  in  essential  fiils,  spirits,  or  naphtha,  and 
even  in  bisulphide  of  carl>on.  Another  important  advantage  of 
linolein  la  that  it  expands  in  dryinfr.  which  ]M'(Miliarly  adapts  it 
to  iron  surfaces  ;  since  cracks,  however  minute,  resulting  from 
shrinkage,  exjKise  enough  of  the  met«l  to  afford  a  chance  ifor  cor- 
rosion, which  will  spread  in  all  directions,  undermining  the  paint 
and  causing  it  to  scale  off,  beside  discolorinjr  it.  In  selectiufi'  a 
paint  for  iron,  meclianical  adhesion  is  a  consideration  of  the  first 


PRACTICAL   TECHNOLOGY.  169 

importance.  Pitchy  or  bitumiuous  films  are  especially  effective 
as  regards  their  adhesion  to  iron  ;  for  example,  solutions  ot  as- 
phalt or  pitch  in  petroleum  or  turpentine.  These  are  also  very  ef- 
fective as  regards  continuity,  owing  to  the  fact  that,  in  drying, 
they  form  plastic  films,  which  yield  with  the  expansion  and  con- 
traction of  the  iron,  and  manifest  no  tendency  to  crack.  If  the 
surface  is  rusty,  they  penetrate  the  oxide  scale,  and  envelop  the 
particles  very  effectually,  making  them  a  portion  of  the  paint. 
The  solubility  of  such  a  film  in  water  may  be  counteracted  by 
mixinor  it  with  linseed-oil.  The  experiment  may  easily  be  tried 
by  mixing  about  3  parts  of  Brunswick  black  with  one  of  white, 
red,  or  stone  colored  paint,  the  body  of  which  is  composed  of  red 
or  white  lead  or  litharge.  Red-lead  is  the  best,  for  many  reasons, 
if  finely  ground  and  thoroughly  mixed  with  linseed-oil.  Any  one 
of  several  kinds  of  bitumen  may  be  used,  either  natural  mineral 
asphalt,  pine  pitch,  or  artificial  asphalt,  such  as  gas-tar  or  the  re- 
siduum of  petroleum  distillation,  in  cases  where  the  crude  oil  has 
been  distilled  before  being  treated  with  acid.  This  gives  a  very 
hard,  bright  pitcli,  which  is  soluble  in  "once  run"  parafiine  spirit, 
and  which  makes  the  base  of  an  excellent,  cheap,  and  durable 
paint  for  iron-work  in  exposed  positions.  Paraffine  can  be  recom- 
mended for  all  classes  of  iron-work  which  can  be  treated  hot.  The 
most  effective  method  of  applying  it  is  to  heat  the  iron  in  vacuo, 
in  order  to  expand  it  and  open  its  pores,  when  paraffine,  raised 
to  the  proper  temperature,  is  run  upon  it.  By  this  means  the  iron 
is  penetrated  to  a  sufficient  depth  to  afford  a  very  effectual  pro- 
tection against  oxidation,  especially  when  a  suitable  paint  is  sub- 
sequently applied. 

Lacquer,  Deep  golden. — Seed-lac  3  oz.,  turmeric  1  oz.,  dragon's 
blood  i  oz. ,  alcohol  1  pt.  Digest  for  a  week,  frequently  shaking. 
Decant  and  filter.  Golden  :  Ground  turmeric  1  lb.,  gamboge  1| 
ozs.,  ^um-sandarac  3ilbs.,  shellac  f  lb.  (all  in  powder),  recti- 
fied spirits  of  wine,  2  gals.  Dissolve,  strain,  and  add  1  pt.  of  tur- 
pentine varnish.  Red:  Spanish  anatto  3  lbs.,  dragon's  blood 
1  lb.,  gum-sandarac  Si  lbs.,  rectified  spirits  2  gals.,  turpen- 
tine varnish  1  c^t.  Dissolve,  strain,  and  mix,  as  last.  Pale  brass  : 
Gamboge,  cut  small,  1  oz..  Cape  aloes,  ditto,  3  ozs.,  pale  shellac 
1  lb.,  rectified  spirits  2  gals.  Dissolve  and  mis  as  with  the 
golden.  Lacquers,  Cliancjing :  I^acquers  of  this  description 
are  called  changing,  because  when  applied  to  metals  such 
as  copper,  brass,  or  hammered  tin,  they  give  them  a  lustre 
approaching  that  of  the  precious  metals.  Mix  4  ozs.  of  the 
best  gamboge  in  32  ozs.  of  spirits  of  turpentine  ;  in  another 
vessel,  mix  4  ozs.  of  dragon's  blood  witli  same  quantity  of 
turpentine,  and  in  a  third  vessel,  1  oz.  of  annotto  with  like  amount 
of  spirits.  Keep  the  vessels  exposed  to  the  sun,  in  a  warm  place, 
for  a  fortnight,  when  the  contents  will  be  fit  for  use.  By 
mixing  these,  any  desired  tint  can  be  obtained.  Another 
deep  golden  :  Strongest  alcohol  4  ozs.,  Spanish  anatto  8  grains., 
powdered  turmeric  2  drachms,  red-saunders  12  grains.  Infuse 
this  mixture  in  the  cold  for  forty-eight  hours,  pour  off  the  clear, 
and  strain  the  rest;  then  add  powdered  shellac  A  oz.,  sandarac 
1  drachm,  mastic  1  drachm,  Canada  balsam  1  drachm.  Dis- 
solve in  the  cold  by  frequent  agitation,  laying  the  bottle  on  its 
side  to  present  a  greater  surface  to  the  alcohol.     When  dissolved. 


1  70  PRACTICAL   TECHNOLOGY. 

add    30  drops  of   spirits   of    turpentine.     Pale   tin :    Strongest 

alcohol  4    ozs. ,  powdered   turmeric  2   drachms,  hay    saJEfrou    1 

scruple,  dragon's  blood,  in  powder,    2  scruples,  red  saunders  i 

scruple.  Infuse,  and  add  shellac,  etc. ,  as  to  the  last-described  deep 

golden.  When  dissolved,  add  40  drops  of  spirits  of  turpentine. 
Lacquer  should  always  stand  till  it  is  quite  fine  before  it  is 
used. 


Letteking,  Sign-painter's  scale  for. — The  following  is  a  con- 
venient table  for  sign-painters  or  others  who  have  occasion  to 
make  lettering.  Supposing  the  height  of  the  capital  letters  to  be 
ten,  the  widths  are  as  follows  :  B,  F,  P,  ten  ;  A,  C,  D,  E,  G,  H, 
K,  N,  0,  Q,  R,  T,  V,  X,  and  Y,  eleven  ;  I,  five  ;  J,  eight  ;  S  and 
L,  nine  ;  M  and  W,  seventeen  ;  Z  and  &,  twelve.  Numerals  :  1 
equals  five  ;  2,  3,  5,  7,  8,  nine  ;  4,  eleven  ;  6,  9,  0,  ten.  Lower- 
case letters  (height  six  and  a  half) :  Width  :  a,  b,  d,  k,  p,  q,  x  and 
z,  seven  and  a  half  ;  c,  e,  o,  s,  seven  ;  f,  i,  j,  1,  t,  three  ;  g,  h,  n, 
u,  eight ;  m,  thirteen  ;  r,  v,  y,  six  ;  w,  ten. 

Putty,  Old,  in  sashes,  To  soften. — Run  a  red-hot  iron  over  it : 
it  will  peel  off  easily. 

Varnish,  Black. — Alcohol  1  qt.,  aniline  blue  184.8  grs., 
fuchsin  46.2  grs.,  naphthaline  yellow  123.2.  Dissolve  by  agita- 
tion in  less  than  12  hours.  One  application  is  sufficient.  The 
mixture  should  be  filtered  when  it  will  not  deposit. 

Varnish,  Cheap  gold. — The  following  is  a  cheap  substitute  for 
the  ex])en8ive  gold  varnish  used  on  ornamental  tin-ware.  Tur- 
pentine +  gallon,  asphaltum  I  gill,  yellow  aniline  2  ozs. ,  um- 
ber 4  ozs.,  turpentine  varnish  1  gal.,  and  gamboge  -k  lb.  Mix 
and  boil  for  ten  hours. 

Varnish,  Copal,  To  make. — Dissolve  1  pt.  camphor,  by  weight, 
in  12  pts.  ether,  then  add  best  copal  resin  (pulverized)  4  pts.,  and 
place  in  a  well-stoppered  bottle.  When  the  copal  has  partly  dis- 
solved and  has  become  swollen,  add  strong  alcohol  4  pts.,  oil  of 
turpentine  i  pt.  Shake,  and  allow  to  stand  for  a  tew  hours. 
This  makes  an  excellent  varnish. 

Varnish  for  Maps. — Take  equal  parts  genuine  Canada  balsam 
and  oil  of  turpentine  ;  mix.  Set  the  bottle  in  warm  water,  and 
agitate  until  the  solution  is  perfect  ;  then  set  in  u  warm  place  a 
week  to  settle,  when  pour  off  the  clear  varnish  for  use.  Before 
using,  cover  the  map  with  a  thin  solution  of  pure  glue. 

V.XRNisn,  Parisian. — Dissolve  1  part  of  .shellac  in  3  to  4  parts  o| 
alcohol  of  92  per  cent  in  a  water-bath,  and  add  cautiously-distill- 
ed water,  until  a  curdy  mass  separates  out,  which  is  collected 
and  i)reHse(l  between  linen.  'Vho  liquid  is  lilt<;red  through  paper, 
all  the  alcohol  reinove<l  liy  distillatinn  fmiii  the  water-bath,  and 
the  resin  removed  and  dried  at  100*^  Centigrade,  until  it  ceases  to 
lose  weight.  Dissolve  it  in  double  its  weight  of  alcohol  of  96  per 
cent,  and  i)erfume  with  laveiuler  oil. 

VV.\lni:t  Stain  for  Wood.— Water  I  (|t.,  washing  soda  1^ 
ozs.,  Vandyke  br.wn  2*  ozs.,  bichromate  of  potash  i  oz.  Boil 
lor  ten  minutes,  and  apjtly  with  a  brush,  either  hot  or  cold. 


PRACTICAL  TECHNOLOGY. 


171 


Whitewash,  To  improve. — Add  a  strong  solution  of  sulphate 
of  magnesia. 

Wood,  Red  stain  for. — A  permanent  and  handsome  reddish 
color  may  be  given  to  cherry  or  pear  tree  wood  by  a  coat  of  a 
strong  solution  of  permanganate  of  potash,  left  on  a  longer  or 
shorter  time  according  to  the  shade  required. 


HINTS   ABOUT   DRAWING   AND  SKETCHING. 


Camera  Ltjcida,  The.— This  is  probably  the  most  reliable  op- 
tical device  employed  for  copying.  The  principle  of  its  construc- 
tion will  be  understood  in  tlie  diagram  marked  2  in  the  engrav- 
ing. The  glass  is  simply  a  four-sided  prism,  having  one  right 
angle,  one  of  135°,  and  two  of  67^°.  When  disposed  as  repre- 
sented, the  rays  from  the  object  pass  into  it  without  any  appreci- 
able refraction,  and  are  totally  reflected  from  the  lower  inclined 


FIG.  1  —THE   CAMERA  LUCIDA. 


side,  and  again  from  the  upper  inclined  side,  emerging  near  tha 
summit  in  a  direction  almost  perpendicular  to  the  top  face,  so 
that  the  eye  sees  on  the  paper  placed  beneath  an  image  of  the 
object.  If  the  image  be  traced  by  the  pencil,  a  very  correct  out- 
line, not  reversed,  is  obtained.  The  use  of  the  device  requires 
practice.  The  nearer  the  object  copied  is  brought  to  the  prism, 
the  larger  is  its  image,  and  vice  versa. 


172 


PRACTICAL   TECHNOLOGY. 


A  simple  method  of  constructing  the  camera  Uicida  is  shown  in 
Fig.  2,  and  is  the  invention  of  Mr.  H. 
E.  Mead,  artist  of  the  Scientific  Ame- 
rican. The  prism  can  be  obtained  at  a 
small  cost  from  any  optician,  and  the 
rest  of  the  apparatus  any  one  can  cut  out 
of  black  walnut  with  a  knife,  and  per- 
haps a  gimlet.  The  thumbscrews  used 
are  of  brass,  of  the  kind  employed  for 
shutter-fastenings,  and  can  be  procured 
of  any  hardware  dealer  for  a  few  cents 
eacli.  B  is  the  prism,  and  A  is  a  sec- 
tion of  one  of  the  joints,  showing  how 
the  apparatus  may  be  easily  adjusted. 
A  movable  rod,  secured  by  a  thumb- 
screw, regulates  the  height  ot  the  prism, 
and  the  single  clamp  shown  secures  it 
to  the  tabk".  The  cost  of  the  whole  is 
about  seven  dollars. 

Drawing-Board,  Reflecting. — A  flat 
board  is  provided,  with  two  uprights, 
both  of  which,  with  the  board,  are 
grooved  to  hold  a  pane  of  glass  in  a  per- 
l)cndicular  jjosition.  The  drawing  to  be 
copied  is  secured  to  the  board  on  the  left 
of  the  glass,  and  the  blank  paper  is  fas- 
tened on  the  right.  The  artist  now 
PIG.  2.— A  SIMPLE  CAMERA  stands  to  the  left,  as  represented  in  the 
LuciDA.  illustration,   and   looks   down  upon    the 

glass  at  a  very  oblique  angl(\  The  original  drawing  is  re- 
flected from  the  ])olish('d  surface  of  the  pane  to  his  eye,  and  at 
the  same  time  he  sees  tlie  white  ])aper  through  the  transparent 
glass,  Bo  that  the  lines  of  the  model  appear  transferred,  but 
reversed,  upon  the  paper.  These  are  followed  with  a  pencil, 
and  the  outline  is  made. 

Drawino,    Colors    used    in    mechanical. — The   annexed   table 
shows  different  materials,  and  the  colors  used  to  denote  them  : 

Cast-iron,    ...  Paine's  gray  and  a  little  Indian  ink. 

"         (another  tint)  Ordinary  neutral  tint. 
"  "  Prussian  blue  and  Indian  ink. 

Prussian  blue  (or  cobalt). 
A  ]>ur])le  made  by  mixing  crimson  lake 

and  Prussian  blui-. 
<ianibi)ge  or  yellow  ciidrniuni. 
Iniiian  red  mixed  willi  a  little  lake, 
liurnt  umber. 
Indian  hmI. 
Indian  yellow  or  cadmium,   toned   with 

white! 
Chinese    white    ami     Indian    ink,    toned 

with  yellow. 
Broken,   irregular   straight    lines,   with 

li(juid  copix-raH, 


Wrought-iron, 
Steel, 

<iun-metal. 
('opper, 
\Vo<.d, 
Brick  (red), 
"      (yellow), 

Stone  color, 

Water, 


PRACTICAL   TECHNOLOGY. 


178 


Paper,  Transfer. — A  good  transfer  paper  for  copying  monu- 
mental inscriptions  and  metallic  patterns  may  be  made  by  rubbing 


A    REFLECTING    DRAWING-BOARD. 


a  mixture  of  black-lead  and  soap  over  tlie  surface  of  common 
silver  paper  . 

Paper,  Tracing,  Temporarily  trnnsparent. — This  is  made  by 
dissolving  castor-oil  in  absolute  alcohol,  and  applying  the  liquid 
to  the  pajjer  with  a  sponge.  The  alcohol  speedily  evaporates, 
leaving  the  paper  dry.  After  the  tracing  is  made,  the  paper  is 
immersed  in  absolute  alcohol,  which  removes  the  oil,  restoring 
the  sheet  to  its  original  opacity. 

Paper,  Tracing,  that  can  be  washed. — This  is  prepared  by 
first  saturating  writing-paper  with  benzine,  and  then  immedi- 
ately coating  it  lightly  with  a  varnish  composed  of  boiled  bleached 
linseed-oil  20  parts,  lead  shavings  1  part,  oxide  of  zinc  5 
parts,  Venice  turpentine  i  part.  Mix,  boil  for  8  hours,  and, 
after  cooling,  add  white  gum-copal  5  parts,  and  gum-sandarac  i 
part. 

Pantagraph,  The. — This  consists  of  four  rulers,  jointed  toge- 
ther at  their  intersections,  and  having,  at  two  of  the  angles,  sup- 
ports terminating  in  round  points  or  smoothly-running  casters. 
At  one  of  the  other  angles  is  a  weight  to  which  the  apparatus  is 
pivoted,  and  which  holds  it  in  place,  and  at  the  fourth  corner  is 
a  tracing-point,  shown  in  the  hand  of  the  operator.  Directly 
across  the  frame  thus  made,  and  pivoted  at  its  ends  to  the  centres 
of  two  of  the  bars,  is  a  fifth  bar,  through  the  middle  of  which 
passes  a  pencil.     Along  half  the  length  of  the  two  side-bars,  and 


174 


PKACTICAl,   TECHNOLOGY. 


also  of  the  central  bar,  are  made  perforations,  so  that  the  length 
of  the  rulers  can  be  shortened  as  rendered  necessary.  The  tracmg 
point  is  moved  over  the  outline  to  be  followed,  and  its  motion  is 
communicated  to  the  series  of  rulers,  which,  by  a  kind  of  paral- 
lel movement  actuate  the  pencil  to  describe  precisely  the  same 


THE    PANTAGRAPH. 


line,  equal  in  dimension  to  thiit  of  the  co])y,  or  enlarged  or  re- 
duced. Tlie  scales  of  the  two  drawings  are  to  each  other  as  the 
distances  of  the  pencil  and  of  the  tracing-point  from  the  pivot, 
and  these  distances  are  adjusted  by  altering  the  position  of  the 
joints  in  the  holes. 

Pencils,  Copvinc,  To  make. — Pencils  are  sold  by  stationers, 
the  marks  of  which  maybe  copied  in  the  same  manner  as  writing 
made  by  the  pen  with  ordinary  copying-ink.  The  method  of 
lir('i)ariiig  the  leads  is  as  follows  :  A  thick  paste  is  made  of  gra- 
])hite.  linely  ]>uiveri/.ed  kaolin,  and  a  very  conceut rated  solution 
of  aniline  blue,  soluble  in  water.  The  mixture  is  pressed  into 
cylinders  of  suitable  size  and  dried,  when  it  is  ready  for  use.  (Slum 
arable  may  be  substituted  for  the  kaolin. 

St:N  DuAWiNf;.  —  Draw  with  a  ])eMcil  on  a  piece  of  tracing- 
paper  the  desired  design  ;  go  over  the  lines  with  very  blaek  ink, 
turn  tlie  paper  over,  and  ffjjlow  the  lines  also  witli  ink  on  the 
reverse  side  ;  fasten  tli«'  paper  by  the  corners  to  a  pane  of  clear 
glass.  Make  a  solution  f)f  .J  oz.  bichroniati^  of  potash  in  2  ozs. 
hot  water,  strain  \\hen  eold,  aiul  with  this  bi'usli  over  the  ])a])er 
or  silk  on  whiih  the  design  is  to  l)e  printed.  Plac<!  the  material 
t  liuH  pre]>ared  under  the  ])!i])er  on  the  glass,  and  <himp  all  together. 
f'^.xpose  the  wlioh-  to  bright  sunliglit,  glass  uppermost,  then  design, 
tlien  biehromate  paper  ;  in  a  few  inr)ments,  the  design  will  be  print- 


PKACTICAL    TECHNOLOGY. 


175 


ed  deeply.     Wash  and  soak  for  a  short  time  in  clean  water  (to 
fix),  dry,  and  press  with  a  warm  fiat-iron. 

Ruler,  Perspective. — This  is  a  simple  arrangement  for  draw- 
ing lines  in  correct  perspective.  It  consists  in  three  arms  of 
equal  length  pivoted  together  at  one  end  by  a  screw-clamp.  Two 
pins  are  inserted  in  the  drawing-board,  against  which  two  arms  of 
the  ruler  abut.  The  angle  of  these  arms  and  the  position  of  the 
pins  are  governed  by  the  distance  required  for  the  vanishing- 


THE  PERSPECTIVE-EULER. 

point,  as  the  greater  the  angle,  the  further  the  same  is  removed, 
and  vice  versa.  Once  adjusted,  the  parts  are  clamped  firmly  to- 
gether, and  the  lines  ruled  by  the  upper  side  of  the  arm  which 
rests  upon  the  paper.  The  arms  at  an  angle  are  kept  in  contact 
with  the  pins,  and  the  ruling  arm  is  moved  up  or  down  the  paper. 

Sketching-Frames. — A  square  frame  is  hinged  to  the  top  of 
an  ordinary  drawing  lap-board,  so  that  it  will  stand  in  an  upright 
position  (as  in  Fig.  1).  Across  this  is  stretched  a  number  of 
threads  or  wires  at  equal  distances  apart  so  as  to  divide  the  inte- 
rior space  into  small  squares.  The  paper  on  the  board  is  simi- 
larly divided  by  light  pencil-lines  ruled  over  the  surface.  In 
making  the  sketch,  the  artist  draws  so  much  of  the  view  as  he 
sees  through  one  of  his  squares  in  the  frame,  into  the  correspond- 
ing ruled  square  on  the  paper,  and  thus  having  a  large  number 
of  straight  lines  to  refer  to  is  very  readily  enabled  to  locate  the 
details  of  the  picture.  It  is,  however,  necessary  to  use  but  one 
eye  when  looking  at  the  landscape,  and  to  keep  this  eye  always 
at  the  same  place,  for  which  purpose  an  additional  eye-piece 
may  be  added,  simply  consisting  of  a  ring  supported  on  a  stand. 

Sketching,    Out  Door,    Simple    apparatus    for. — Provide    a 


176 


PEACTICAL    TECHNOLOGY. 


small  table  with,  drawer  ;  mount  two  grooved  movable  uprights 
at  one  end,  with  glass  between  the  grooves  ;  place  an  upright 
with  a  small  eye-hole  at  the  opposite  end  of  the  table,  as  shown 
in  the  engraving.     Wash  the  glass  with  a  thin  solution  of  gum 


THE    SKETCHING-FRAMB. 


arable  and  rock  candy  (20  parts  ffum  to  1  o£  candy).  When  the  glass 
is  dry,  it  is  ready  for  use.  Look  through  the  small  hole  to  get  the 
object  subtended  by  the  glass,  and  with  a  soft  crayon  outline  the 
subject  on  the  prepared  surface  ;  remove  the  glass  and  lay  it 


ii;   -K  1. 1  c  III  M 


M'l'AltATt'H. 


over  your  Hkclcli.  If  you  rciiuiri'  lliu  outline,  you  .sliouM  liave  a 
second  plate  of  glass,  and  trace  over  it  the  reverse  way  with 
cliarcoul.  then  lay  your  paper  on,  and  a  little  gentle  rubbing  will 
transfer  the  outline. 


PRACTICAL    TECHNOLOGY. 


177 


Tracing-Table,  Transparent. — This,  as  shown  in  the  illus- 
tration, consists  of  a  square-bottomed  bos,  the  tops  of  the  sides  of 
which  are  inclined  like  those  of  a  writing-desk.  The  back  is  open, 
and,  as  the  apparatus  rests  on  the  table,  abuts  against  a  window. 
The  window-shade  is  drawn  down  to  meet  the  upper  part  of  the 
device,  so  that  the  liglit  enters  through  the  back  of  the  latter. 


A    TKANSPAKENT    TRACTNG-TABLE. 


and  the  interior,  being  lined  with  white  iiaper,  is  reflected  up 
through  the  inclined  glass  top  ;  the  original  drawing  is  laid  upon 
the  glass,  and  a  sheet  of  tissue-paper  ruled  off  in  squares  is 
placed  above  it.  Being  brilliantly  illuminated  from  below,  the 
drawing  would  readily  sliow  through,  and  might  be  copied,  square 
by  square,  as  belore  described. 


178  PRACTICAL    TECHXOLOGY. 


SIMPLE   GALVANIC   BATTERIES    AND    ELECTRO- 
PLATING RECIPES. 

Battery  Carbons. — Tliese  can  be  readily  cut  witli  a  hand- 
saw moistened  in  water. 

Battery,  Daniell's,  Substitute  for  copper  in. — Brighten  sheets 
of  ordinary  sheet-tin  and  plunge  into  a  very  weak  copper-plating 
solution,  in  connection  witli  a  galvanic  battery  of  very  low  quan- 
tity. In  15  or  18  hours  a  tenacious  film  of  copper  will  have  been 
deposited  upon  the  tin,  and  the  plate  can  then  be  bent  in  shape 
suitable  for  the  battery. 

Battery,  Galvanic,  A  cheap. — Mr.  W.  M.  Symons  proposes 
a  cheap  but  convenient  galvanic  battery  :  each  of  the  zinc  plates 
js  2  in.  square,  and  covered  with  fustian  or  other  fabric,  out- 
side which  thick  copper  wire  is  wound  to  form  the  other  plate  ; 
the  exciting  liquid  is  weak  chloride  of  zinc.  Pairs  of  plates 
thus  made  can  be  arranged  in  series  to  form  a  battery  to  give  out 
weak  currents  for  a  great  length  of  time. 

Battery,  Galvanic,  A  simple. — Take  a  glass  tumbler,  and 
place  in  the  bottom  a  sheet  of  copper,  having  an  insulated  wire 
attached  and  extending  out  of  the  tumbler.  Cover  the  cop])er 
with  blue  vitriol,  and  suspend  a  sheet  of  zinc  near  the  top.  Fill 
the  tumbler  with  water.  Connect  the  zinc  and  copper  together 
for  48  hours,  and  the  battery  will  be  ready  for  use. 

B.\ttery,  Galv.\nic,  Exciting  liquid  for. — Dissolve  protosul- 
phale  of  iron,  20  i)ts.,  by  weight,  in  'Sit  pts.  of  water,  stir  in  a 
dilution  of  sulphuric  acid  (eijual  parts  of  acid  and  water,)  7  pts.,  and 
add  1  part  nitric  acid  similarly  diluted.  This  liquid  has  great 
energy,  and  disengages  no  deleterious  fumes. 

B.\ttery  Zincs,  Amalgamation  of. — The  simjdest  and  quickest 
method  consists  in  immersing  the  zinc  in  a  li(}uid  comj)Osed  of 
nitrate  of  mercniry  and  hydrochloric  acid.  A  few  moments  are 
sufficient  for  the  complete  amalgamation  of  the  zinc,  however 
soiled  its  surface  may  be.  With  a  quart  of  this  liquid,  which 
costs  less  than  50  cents,  150  zincs  can  be  aiualgamated.  The 
liquid  should  be  ])repared  in  this  manner  :  Dissolve  in  warm 
water  200  grains  of  mercury  in  1000  grains  of  aqua  regia  (nitric 
acid  1  part,  liydrochloric  acid  ;j  ])arts).  When  the  mercury  is 
dissolved,  add  1000  grains  of  hydrochloric  acid. 

Electro-Maonets,  Softening. — Magnets  or  armatures  for 
electro-motors  may  be  softened  as  follows  :  Heat  the  iron  to  an 
even  dull-red  lieat  all  over  ;  and  if  the  surface  of  the  iron  has 
not  V)een  faced  off  in  a  machine,  liglitly  file  it  to  remove  the  scale, 
and  then  immerse  it  in  common  srjftsoap,  allowing  it  to  n-main 
therein  until  it  is  <|uitr  cold.  Then  reheat  the  magnet  to  an  <'ven 
red  heat  whose  redness  is  ])arely  ])erceptible,  and  bury  it  in  pul- 
verized lime,  wherein  it  must  also  remain  until  <|uite  cold,  wljen 
the  metal  will  be  found  as  soft  as  it  is  possible  to  make  it,  and 
the  blade  of  an  ordinary  penknife  will  cut  it.  At  the  second 
heating,  (lie  iron  will  emit  a  light   blue  flame,  showing  the  effect 


PRACTICAL    TECHNOLOGY.  l79 

of  the  immersion  in  the  softsoap.  The  capability  of  receiving 
strong  magnetic  power  may  be,  by  this  process,  very  much  in- 
creased. 

Electro-Plated  Paper  or  Cloth. — Make  a  solution  of  ni- 
trate of  silver,  and  add  ammonia  until  the  precipitate  formed  at 
first  is  entirely  dissolved.  Place  the  paper  or  cloth  for  1  or  3 
hours  in  the  liquid.  After  removing  and  drying,  expose  to  a 
current  of  hydrogen  gas,  by  which  the  silver  is  reduced  to  a 
metallic  state,  and  the  paper  or  fabric  becomes  so  good  a  conduc- 
tor of  electricity,  that  it  maybe  electro-plated  with  copper,  silver, 
or  gold  in  the  usual  manner. 

Electro-Plating,  Cleansing  metals  for. — Most  articles  are 
rapidly  cleaned  by  chemical  means.  The  first  of  these  is  the  re- 
moval of  grease  by  boiling  in  a  solution  of  caustic  soda,  made  by 
boiling  2  lbs.  of  common  washing-soda  and  ^  lb.  cjuicklime  in  a 
gallon  of  water  ;  after  this  they  should  be  well  brushed  under 
water.  The  further  processes  will  depend  upon  the  nature  of  the 
objects. 

1.  Silver  is  washed  iu  dilute  nitric  acid,  then  dipped  for  a  mo- 
ment in  strong  nitric  acid,  and  well  washed.  Care  must  betaken 
that  the  water  does  not  contain  chlorine  salts  ;  if  the  ordinary 
supply  does  so,  the  first  rinsing  after  acids  must  be  made  in  wa- 
ter J5repared  for  the  purpose  by  removing  the  chlorine  by  adding 
to  it  a  few  drops  of  nitrate  of  silver,  and  allowing  the  chloride  to 
settle. 

2.  Copper,  brass,  and  German  silver  are  washed  in  a  pickle  of 
water  100  parts,  oil  of  vitriol  100  parts,  nitric  acid  (sp.  gr.  1.3)  50 
parts,  hydrochloric  acid  2  parts.  Spots  of  verdigris  should  be 
first  removed  by  rubbing  with  a  piece  of  wood  dipped  in  hydro- 
chloric acid  ;  they  are  then  rinsed  in  water. 

3.  Britannia  metal,  pewter,  tin,  and  lead  can  not  be  well  clean- 
ed in  acids,  but  are  to  be  well  rubbed  in  a  fresh  solution  of  caus- 
tic soda,  and  passed  at  once,  without  washing,  into  the  depositing 
solution,  which  must  be  alkaline. 

4.  Iron  and  steel  are  soaked  in  water  containing  1  lb.  oil  of 
vitriol  to  the  gallon,  with  a  little  nitric  and  hydrochloric  acids 
added.  Cast-iron  requires  a  stronger  solution,  and  careful  rub- 
bing with  sand,  etc.,  to  remove  scale  and  the  carbon  left  by  the 
acids.  It  is  an  advantage  at  times  to  connect  them  to  a  piece  of 
zinc  while  cleaning.  These  metals  should  be  cleaned  just  before 
placing  in  the  depositing  cell  ;  and  if  they  are  placed  in  an  alka- 
line solution,  they  should  be  rinsed  and  dipped  in  a  solution  of 
caustic  soda,  to  remove  all  trace  of  acids. 

5.  Zinc  may  be  cleaned  like  iron,  with  a  dip  into  stronger  acids 
before  the  final  washing. 

6.  Solder  requires  special  care,  as  the  acids  used  with  the  ob- 
jects produce  upon  it  an  insoluble  coating,  and  an  obstinate  resist- 
ance to  deposit  is  set  up  at  the  edge  of  the  solder.  The  same 
remark  applies  to  soft -metal  edgings  and  mounts.  These  should  be 
rubbed  with  a  strong  caustic-soda  solution,  rinsed,  and  then 
treated  as  follows  :  Make  a  weak  solution  of  nitrate  of  copper 
by  dissoh-ing  copper  in  dilute  nitric  acid  ;  to  a  camel-hair 
or  other  soft  brush,  tie  3  or  4  fine  iron  wires  to  form  part  of  the 


180  PRACTICAL    TECHNOLOGY. 

brush  ;  dip  this  in  the  nitrate  of  copper,  and  draw  over  the  solder, 
taking  care  that  some  of  the  iron  wires  touch  it  ;  a  thin  adherent 
of  copper  will  form,  and  upon  this  a  good  deposit  will  take  place. 
7.  Old  work  for  replating  must  have  the  silver  and  gold  care- 
fully removed  ;  if  this  is  not  done,  there  is  apt  to  be  a  failure  of 
contact  at  the  edges  of  the  old  coatings,  which  causes  blisters 
and  stripping  under  the  burnisher.  The  best  mode  of  stripping 
is  wiih  the  scratch-brush,  etc.,  but  chemical  means  may  be  used. 
Gold  is  dissolved  by  strong  nitric  acid,  to  which  common  salt  is 
gradually  added  ;  it  may  be  collected  afterward  by  drying  and 
fusing  with  soda  or  potash.  Silver  is  similarly  dissolved  by 
strong  sulphuric  acid  and  crystals  of  saltpetre,  and  recovered  by 
diluting  and  precipitating  with  hydrochloric  acid,  then  reducing 
the  chloride  either  by  fusion  with  carbonate  of  soda,  or  by  acid 
and  zinc  cuttings.  Copper  can  be  removed  from  silver  by  boiling 
with  dilute  hydrochloric  acid,  and  tin  and  lead  by  a  hot  solution 
of  perchloride  of  iron. 

Insulators,  Rubber,  Substitutes  for.— Ivory  and  guaiacura 
wood,  which  are  both  relatively  good  conductors,  become  nearly 
non-conductive  if  stove-dried  and  saturated  with  certain  oily  and 
resinous  liquids,  which  close  up  the  pores  of  the  bodies  in  (jues- 
lioii,  and  prevent  moisture  from  penetrating  within.  Other  kinds 
of  wood  can  be  modified  in  the  same  manner. 

Sawdust  of  bard  wood,  agglutinated  with  blood  and  submitted 
to  a  considerable  pressure,  so  as  to  mould  it  into  a  solid,  tenacious 
body,  is  a  good  insulator  for  voltaic  currents.  After  remaining 
six  days  in  a  damp  cellar,  it  showed  no  galvanometric  deviation. 

Iron,  Electro-plating  with  silver  on. —  The  direct  irciy  :  The  ar- 
ticle should  first  be  rendered  free  from  rust  by  rubbing  with  em- 
ery-cloth, or  by  (lipping  it  into  a  pickle  composed  of  sulphuric  acid 
2  ozs.,  hydnjciiloric  acid  1  oz.,  water  1  gal.  After  the  article  has 
remained  some  time  in  this  pickle,  it  should  be  taken  out  and  the 
rust  removed  by  a  brush  and  wet  sand.  If  the  oxide  can  not  be 
easily  clfaiicd  off,  it  must  be  returned  to  the  pickle.  As  soon  as 
the  article  is  rendered  bright,  it  is  W'ashed  in  a  warm  solution  of 
soda,  for  the  purpose  of  removing  all  grease.  Lastly,  it  is  well 
rinsed  in  hot  water,  and  immediately  placed  in  the  plating  solu- 
tion, which  should  contain  only  about  onc^  fourth  as  much  silver 
as  that  usinl  for  plating  copper  and  brass  articles.  The  battery 
power  must  al.so  be  weak.  When  the  object  receives  a  sliirht 
coating,  the  process  may  Ix;  carried  on  mort!  rapidly  by  increasing 
the  battery  j)Ower,  and  by  placing  the  article  in  a  much  stronger 
l)lating  bath,  using  about  1  oz.  silver  in  a  gallon  of  solution. 
The  indirect  method  consists  in  first  coating  the  iron  with  copper, 
which  insures  success.  C'o])per  adheres  firmly  to  iron,  but  silver 
does  nr)t  ;  hence  rop])er  acts  the  part  of  a  go-lx'tween.  After  the 
articli!  has  i)(-en  cleaned,  as  above  described,  it  is  coated  with 
cojipcjr  by  placing  it  in  a  solution  comiiostMl  of  (-arbonate  of  potas- 
8a  4  OZ8.,  sulphate  of  copjjer  2  ozs.,  li(|uid  ammonia  about  2  oz., 
cyanide;  of  i)otassinni  (i  ozs.,  water  about  1  gal.  'i'lie  sul])hate 
of  co|)per  nniy  be  dL^^solved  in  warm  rnin-wafer,  iinil,  when  cold, 
the  carbonate  of  potassa  and  iiinnionia  added  :  the  ])recipilai(? 
wlH!n  formed  is   redjssolved.      '{'he   cyanide  of  potassium  should 


PRACTICAL    TECHNOLOGY.  181 

now  be  added,  until  the  bluish  color  disappears.  Should  any  pre- 
cipitate be  found  in  the  bottom  of  the  vessel,  the  clear  solution 
may  be  poured  off  from  it.  The  solution  is  worked  culd,  and  with 
modi  rate  battery  power.  Let  the  article  remain  in  the  bath 
until  a  thin  film  of  copper  is  deposited,  then  remove  quickly, 
rinse  in  hot  water,  and  place  in  the  silvering  solution,  where 
the  process  may  go  on  as  rapidly  as  if  plating  a  copper  article. 

Pewter,  Electro-plating. — Take  1  ounce  nitric  acid,  and  drop 
pieces  of  copper  in  it  until  effervescence  ceases ;  then  add  ^  ounce 
water,  and  the  solution  is  ready  for  use.  Place  a  few  drops  of 
the  solution  on  the  desired  surface,  and  touch  it  with  a  piece  of 
steel,  and  there  will  be  a  beautiful  film  of  copper  deposited.  The 
application  may  be  repeated  if  necessary,  though  once  is  general- 
ly sufficient.  The  article  must  now  be  washed  and  immediately 
be  placed  in  the  plating  bath,  when  deposition  will  take  place 
with  perfect  ease. 

Steel,  Magnetization  of.— If  a  properly-tempered  steel  needle  be 
introduced  into  a  magnetizing  bobbin  connected  with  a  battery  of 
constant  current,  battery  and  bobbin  comprising  the  circuit,  it  ac- 
quires a  total  determined  magnetism  at  the  end  of  a  period  which 
appears  not  to  exceed  that  of  its  introduction.  On  slowly  with 
drawing  the  needle,  it  is  found  to  retain  residual  magnetism,"whicli , 
together  with  the  total  magnetism,  increases  with  each  repeated 
introduction  until  a  limit  is  reached.  The  needle  may  be  mag- 
netized in  the  bobbin  by  three  other  methods  :  1.  EdaUishment  : 
Introduce  the  needle  ;  establish  the  current  ;  slowly  withdraw 
the  needle.  2.  Interruption  :  With  a  closed  circuit  introduce  the 
needle  slowly  ;  break  the  current  and  withdraw  the  needle.  .S. 
Instantaneous  charge  :  Introduce  the  needle  ;  establish  and 
break  the  current  ;  withdraw  the  needle.  Kepetitions  of  any  of 
these  three  processes  (all  things  being  equal)  insure  an  augmen- 
tation of  the  needle's  magnetic  moment.  The  last  method  is  the 
best,  but  care  must  be  taken  to  introduce  the  needle  and  current 
always  in  the  same  position,  so  as  not  to  reverse  the  poles. 


USEFUL  CHEMICAL  RECIPES  FOR  DETECTION 
OF  ADULTERATIONS,  FILTERING,  INK-MAKING, 
ETC. 

Beer,  To  prevent,  from  turning  sour  while  on  draft. — A 
slate  cistern  is  made,  having  a  wooden  lid,  fitting  accurately, 
floating  on  the  surface  of  the  liquid.  The  sides  of  the  lid  are  be- 
veled, so  that  a  sharp  edge  is  presented  to  the  walls  of  the  cistern, 
and  iilong  this  edge  a  strip  of  india-rubber  is  fastened,  which 
forms,  with  the  bevel  on  the  upper  side,  a  V-shaped  space,  into 
which  wet  sand  is  packed  in  order  to  keep  the  rubber  in  close 
contact  with  the  sides  of  the  cistern,  and  so  to  exclude  the  air 
from  the  same.  A  hole  is  formed  in  the  lid,  having  a  stuffing-box, 
through  which  a  pipe  passes  into  the  liquid,  and  the  connection 


182  PRACTICAL  TECHNOLOGY. 


to  the  beer-engine  is  made  in  the  usual  way.  The  end  of  the  pipe 
in  the  liquid  is  closed,  but  perforations  are  made  in  the  sides 
about  an  inch  therefrom  :  this  prevents  any  sediment  escaping 
with  the  fluid.  Atmosplieric  pressure,  acting  on  the  lid,  forces 
it  to  descend  as  the  liquid  is  removed  from  under  it,  and  thus  a 
constant  flow  is  obtained  by  means  of  the  engine.  By  letting 
the  cistern  into  the  ground,  the  temperature  of  the  liquid  will 
remain  nearly  uniform  the  year  round. 

Beek,  To  clarify. — Take  isinglass,  finely  shredded,  1  lb.,  sour 
beer,  cider,  or  vinegar  3  or  4  pints  ;  macerate  together  till  the 
isinglass  swells,  and  add  more  of  the  sour  liquid  until  a  gallon 
has  been  used.  Strain  and  further  dilute.  A  pound  of  good 
isinglass  should  make  13  gallons  finings,  and  1-^  pints  finings  is 
enough  to  clear  a  barrel  of  beer. 

BisuiiPHiDE  OF  Carbon,To  deodorize. — Distill  with  quicklime, 
the  two  substances  having  been  in  contact  for  24  hours.  The 
distillate  is  received  in  a  flask  partially  filled  with  clean  copper 
turnings.     The  lime  remaining  in  the  retort  is  strongly  colored. 

Campiiok,  To  powder. — Take  camphor  5  ozs.,  alcohol  5  fi. 
drachms,  glycerine  1  fl.  drachm.  Mix  the  glycerine  with  the  al- 
cohol, and  triturate  it  with  the  camphor  until  reduced  to  a  fine 
powder. 

Candles,  Paraffine. — To  dye  beautiful  red,  i)urple,  or  violet 
tints,  use  aniline  colors. 

Casks,  Mouldy,  To  disinfect. — Wash  first  for  about  5  minutes 
with  an  alkaline  solution  of  soda,  and  then  soak  for  1  or  2  days 
with  a  liquor  acidulated  with  hydrochloric  acid. 

CuLOROFORM,  Purifying  decom])osed. — Shake  up  the  chloro- 
form with  a  few  fragments  of  caustic  soda. 

Dyeing  Leatiiku  Yellow. — Picric  acid  dyes  leather  a  good 
yellow,  without  any  mordant  ;  it  must  be  used  in  very  dilute 
solution,  and  not  warmer  than  70°  Fahr.  Aniline  blue  modifies 
this  color  to  a  fine  green. 

Dyes,  Testincj,  for  Adilteratiox. — Red  dyes  must  neither 
color  soap-and- water  nor  linu'-wat(;r,  nor  must  they  themselves 
become  yellow  or  brown  after  boiling.  This  test  shows  the 
presence  or  absence  of  Brazil-wood,  arcliil,  safflower,  sandal- 
wood, and  the  aniline  colors.  Yellow  dyes  must  stand  being 
boiled  with  alcohol,  water,  and  lime -watir.  The  most  stable 
yellow  is  maddei'-ycllow  ;  the  least  stable  are  aiuitto  and  tur- 
meric ;  fustic  is  rather  better.  Blue  dyes  must  not  color  alcohol 
reddish,  nor  must  they  decompose  on  boiling  with  hydrochloric 
acid.  Tlie  best  ])urph;  colors  are  com])oscd  of  indigo  and  codii- 
neal.or  purpnrine.  The  forniiT  test  applies  al.'^o  to  tlu-m.  Orange 
dyes  must  color  luMtlier  water  nor  alcohol  on  boiling  ;  green, 
iieitlier  alcohol  nor  hydrochloric  acid.  Brown  dyes  must  not 
io.'^e  iheir  color  on  standing  with  alcohol,  or  on  boiling  with  wat(!r. 
If  black  colors  liave  a  basis  of  indigo,  they  turn  greenish  or  blue 
on  Itoiling  with  so<liniii  eurhonate  ;  if  the  dye  l)e  ])ure  gall-nuts, 
it  turns  brown.  If  tin;  material  changes  to  red  on  boiling  with 
liydrochloric  acid,  the  coloring  matter  is  logwood  without  a  basis 


PRACTICAL    TECHNOLOGY. 


183 


If  it  changes  to  blue,  indigo  is 


A   SIMPLE   FILTER. 


of  indigo,  and  is  not  durable, 
l^resent. 

Filtering,  Hot. — The  apparatus  consists  of  a  tube  of  soft 
sheet-lead,  which  can  be  wound  around  the  funnel  containing 
the  filter  in  the  form  of  a  spiral.  One  end  of  the  tube  passes 
through  a  cork  in  the  neck  of  a  flask,  in  which  water,  or  other 
liquid  of  higher  boiling-point,  is  boiled  ;  the  other  end  dips  into 
a  receiver,  into  which  the  condensed  liquid  flows. 

Filter,  A  simple. — The  engraving  represents  a  very  good 
filtering  apparatus.  The  best 
material  for  the  box  would 
be  soapstone  ;  the  next  best 
material,  iron.  Mott's  cast- 
iron  tank-plates  come  of  a  con- 
venient size — 18  X  18  inches 
and  9  X  18  inches.  These  may 
be  galvanized  or  coated  with 
slate-paint. 

Freezing-Powders.  —  (1) 
Four  pounds  sulphate  of  soda, 
2i  pounds  each  of  muriate  of 
ammonia  and  nitrate  of  pot- 
ash ;  when  about  to  use,  add 
double  the  weight  of  all  the 
ingredients  in  water.  (2)  Equal  parts  of  nitrate  of  potash  and 
muriate  of  ammonia  ;  when  required  for  use,  add  more  than  dou- 
ble the  weight  of  water.  (3)  Nitrate  of  ammonia  and  water  in 
equal  proportions.  (4)  Carbonate  of  soda  and  nitrate  of  am- 
monia equal  parts,  and  1  equivalent  of  water. 

Filters,  To  make  charcoal. — One  method  consists  in  pulveriz- 
ing animal  charcoal  until  reduced  to  an  impalpable  powder.  This 
is  mixed  with  a  definite  proportion  of  Norway  tar  and  a  com- 
pound of  other  combustible  substances.  The  combined  materials 
are  then  properly  amalgamated  with  liquid  j^itcli,  and  the  whole 
kneaded  up  into  a  homogeneous  plastic  mass  which  admits  of 
being  moulded  into  slabs  or  blocks  of  any  required  dimensions 
and  shape.  These  blocks,  having  been  allowed  to  dry  and  harden, 
are  subsequently  carbonized  by  being  subjected  to  a  process  of 
incineration  by  heat  ;  and  in  this  manner  all  the  combustible 
ingredients  are  burned  out,  leaving  nothing  behind  but  the 
animal  charcoal  in  the  form  of  a  block  of  charcoal,  permeated 
throughout  by  innumerable  pores. 

Gases,  Drying. — Anhydrous  phosphoric  acid  is  the  best  sub- 
gtauce  known  for  this  purpose. 

Glycerine,  Adulteration  of,  with  sugar  and  dextrine.  To  detect, 
— To  5  drops  of  glycerine  add  100  to  120  drops  of  water,  0.4  to  0.6 
grain  of  ammonium  molybdate,  1  drop  pure  nitric  acid,  and  boil 
for  a  minute  and  a  half.  If  any  sugar  or  dextrine  is  present,  the 
mixture  will  assume  a  deep-blue  color. 

Glycerine,  Purification  of. — To  purify  glycerine  which  has 
been  for  some  time  in  use,  add  10  lbs.  iron-filings  to  every  100 
lbs.    of  the  impure  liquid.     Occasionally  shake   it  and  stir  the 


184  PRACTICAL   TECHNOLOGY. 

iron.  In  the  course  of  a  few  weeks,  a  black  gelatinous  mass  will 
collect  on  the  bottom  of  the  vessel,  and  the  supernatant  liquid 
will  become  perfectly  clear,  and  can  be  evaporated  to  remove  any 
excess  of  water  that  may  have  been  added  to  it. 

Glycerine,  Testing. — When  treated  slowly  with  sulphuric 
acid,  it  should  not  turn  brown  ;  with  nitric  acid  and  nitrate  of 
silver,  it  should  not  become  cloudy  ;  and  vvheu  rubbed  between 
the  fingers  it  should  not  emit  a  fatty  smell. 

Hides,  To  preserve. — Carbolic  acid  is  used  in  South-America 
and  Australia  for  this  purpose.  The  immersion  of  hides  for  24 
hours  in  a  two  per  cent  solution  of  carbolic  acid,  and  subsetjuent- 
ly  drying  them,  has  been  successfully  substituted  for  the  more 
tedious  and  expensive  process  of  salting. 

Hydrocarbons,  Classification  of. — The  classification  usually 
adopted  by  distillers  is  as  follows  :  All  above  88°  of  Baume's 
hydrometer  is  called  cliymogene,  from  88°  to  70°  gasoline,  from 
70°  to  60^  naphtha,  from  60"  to  50°  benzine,  from  50°  to  35°  kero- 
sene, from  35°  to  28°  lubricating-oil. 

Ink,  Blue. — Prussian-blue  6  parts,  oxalic  acid  1.  Mix  with 
water  to  a  smooth  paste.  Dilute  with  rain-water,  and  add  a 
little  gum-arabic  to  prevent  spreading. 

Ink,  Copying,  used  without  a  press. — Coarsely-broken  extract 
of  logwood  1  oz.,  carbonate  of  soda  (crystallized)  1  drachm  :  heat  in 
a  porcelain  capsule  with  8  ozs.  distilled  water  until  the  solution 
is  of  a  deep-red  color.  Remove  from  fire  and  stir  in  glycerine  1  oz., 
neutral  chromate  of  potash  dissolved  in  a  little  water  15  grains, 
and  a  mucilaginous  solution  of  2  drachms  finely-pulverized 
gum-arabic.  Kee})S  well,  never  recjuires  a  press  for  copying,  and 
does  not  attack  steel  pens.  The  impression  is  taken  on  thin 
moistened  copying-paper,  at  the  back  of  which  is  jilaced  a  sheet 
of  writing-paper. 

Ink  from  Elderberries. — Bruise  the  berries,  place  them  in 
an  earthen  vessel,  and  keep  in  a  warm  place  for  3  days.  Press 
out  and  filter.  Add  to  12^  ozs.  of  this  filtered  juice  1  oz.  sulphate 
of  iron  and  the  same  quantity  of  pyroligneous  acid.  This  ink  is 
violet  at  first,  and  afterward  becomes  black. 

Ink,  Indkliiu.k,  for  marking  linen.— (1)  Bichloride  of  copper,  8^ 
grains,  dissolved  in  distilled  water,  30  grains  ;  then  add  common 
salt,  10  grains,  and  liquid  ammonia,  iiA  grains.  A  solution  of  30 
grains  hydrochlorate  of  aniline  in  20  grains  distilled  water  is 
thin  added  to  20  grains  solution  of  gum-aral)ic,  containing  2  pts. 
water,  1  pt  gum  arable,  and  10  grains  glyetM-ine.  Four  jjurts  of 
the  aniline  solution  tiius  prei)ared  are  mixed  with  1  part  of  the 
copper  solution.  This  ink  can  be  used  with  a  steel  pen.  it  is 
green  at  first,  but  becomes  black  in  a  ftnv  days  or  by  application 
of  liot  iron.  It  is  absolutely  indelil)le,  and  the  finest  devices  can 
be  written  with  it.  It  is  bettiT  to  mix  the  two  solutions  only 
just  before  using.  (2)  For  very  fiiu;  linen,  take  a  solution  of 
nitrate  of  silver,  4  jtts.,  in  distilled  water,  2-t  ])ts.  Adil  li(|uid 
aininonia  until  the  precipitate  formed  is  dissolved.  Then  a  little 
sap-green  and  indigo  are  ground  together  and  mixed  with  a  so- 
lution of  gum-arabic,  4  pts.,  and  this  is  mixed  with  tlie  nitrato 


PKACTICAI,   TECHNOLOGY.  185 

of  silver  solution.     The  whole  is  then  diluted  until  it  occupies  32 
parts.     It  turns  black  as  No.  1  does. 

Ink,  To  restore  dim. — Cover  the  letters  with  solution  of  ferro- 
cyanide  of  potassium,  with  the  addition  of  diluted  mineral  acid 
(muriatic)  ;  upon  the  application  of  which  the  letters  will  change 
to  a  deep-blue  color.  To  prevent  the  color  from  spreading,  the 
ferrocyanide  should  be  put  on  first,  and  the  dilute  acid  added 
ujDon  it. 

Inks,  Aniline. — Violet  ink  is  obtained  by  dissolving  one  part 
of  aniline  violet-blue  in  300  parts  of  water.  This  ink  is  quite 
limpid,  dries  quickly,  and  gives  a  remarkably  dark  color.  It  is 
necessary  that  new  pens  should  be  employed  in  using  it,  as  the 
smallest  quantity  of  ordinary  ink  mixed  with  it  causes  its  altera- 
tion. Blue  ink  is  made  by  dissolving  1  ])art  of  soluble  Paris-blue 
in  250  parts  of  boiling  water  ;  red  ink,  by  dissolving  1  part  of  soluble 
fuchsiu  in  200  parts  boiling  water.  While  ordinary  inks  are 
decomposed  by  numerous  substances,  and  notably  by  hydrochloric 
acid,  aniline  inks  are  completely  ineffaceable  from  the  paper  on 
which  they  are  used.  They  resist  the  action  of  acids,  and  even 
of  chlorine. 

Inks,  Sympathetic. —  Yellows  (1):  Sulphate  of  copper  and  sal- 
ammoniac,  equal  parts,  dissolved  in  water  ;  (2)  onion-juice  ;  both 
visible  on  heating  Black  (1)  :  Weak  infusion  of  galls.  This  is 
turned  black  by  weak  solution  of  protosulphate  of  iron.  (2) 
Weak  solution  of  protosulphate  of  iron.  Turns  blue  when 
moistened  by  weak  solution  of  prussiate  of  potash,  and  black  by 
infusion  of  galls.  Brown  :  Very  weak  solutions  of  nitric,  sulphu- 
ric, muriatic  acids,  common  salt,  or  nitrate  of  potash.  Visible  on 
heating.  Green :  Solution  of  nitromuriate  of  cobalt.  Brought 
out  by  heat ;  fades  when  cool.  Rose-red  :  Acetate  of  cobalt  solu- 
tion, with  a  small  quantity  of  nitrate  of  potash.  Acts  as  pre- 
ceding. Solutions  of  nitrate  of  silver  and  terchloride  of  gold 
become  permanently  dark  when  exposed  to  sunlight. 

Ink,  White,  for  colored  paper. — 1  part  muriatic  acid,  and  20 
parts  starch-water.  Very  dilute  oxalic  acid  may  also  be  used. 
Write  with  a  steel  pen. 

Ivory  and  Bones,  Bleaching. — Spirit  of  turpentine  is  very 
efficacious  in  removing  the  disagreeable  odor  and  fatty  emana- 
tions of  bones  or  ivory,  while  it  leaves  them  beautifully  bleach- 
ed. The  articles  should  be  exposed  in  the  fluid  for  3  or  4 
days  in  the  sun,  or  a  little  longer  if  in  the  shade.  They  should 
rest  upon  strips  of  zinc,  so  as  to  be  a  fraction  of  an  inch  above 
the  bottom  of  the  glass  vessel  employed.  The  turpentine  acts 
as  an  oxidizing  agent,  and  the  product  of  the  combustion  is  an 
acid  liquor  which  sinks  to  the  bottom,  and  strongly  attacks  the 
bones  if  they  be  allowed  to  touch  it.  The  action  of  the  turpen- 
tine is  not  confined  to  bones  and  ivory,  but  extends  to  wood  of 
various  varieties,  especially  beech,  maple,  elm,  and  cork. 

Ivory,  Imitation.— To  liquid  chloride  of  zinc  of  50°  to  60° 
Baume,  add  3  per  cent  of  sal-ammoniac  ;  then  add  zinc- white  until 
the  mass  is  of  proper  consistence.  This  cement  may  be  run  into 
moulds,  and  when  hard  becomes  as  firm  as  marble. 


18G  PRACTICAL    TECHNOLOGY. 

Light,  brilliant  white,  To  make  a. — Fill  a  small  vessel  of 
earthenware  or  metal  with  perfectly  dry  salpetre  or  niti'e,  press 
down  a  cavity  into  its  surface,  and  in  this  cavity  place  a  piece  of 
phosphorus  ;  ignite  this,  and  the  heat  given  off  melts  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  the  nitre  to  evolve  oxygen  enough  to  combine  with 
the  phosph(M'us,  and  the  effect  is  to  produce  the  most  magnificent 
white  light  which  chemistry  can  afford. 

Mica. — The  best  comes  from  th(3  Eastern  States.  New-York 
mica  is  good.  Canada  mica  is  of  several  different  shades,  from 
light  brown  to  intensely  black. 

Oil,  Cotton-Seed,  Refining. — One  hundred  gallons  of  the  crude 
oil  are  placed  in  a  tank,  and  8  gallons  of  caustic  potash-lye,  of 
45°  Baume,  are  gradually  added  and  well  stirred  for  several 
hours  ;  or  the  same  quantity  of  oil  is  treated  with  about  6  gallons 
of  soda-lye  of  25°  or  30°  Baume,  and  heated  for  an  liour  or  more 
to  about  200°  or  240°  Fahr.,  under  ])erpetual  stirring,  and  left  to 
settle.  The  clear  yellow  oil  is  then  .«e]iarated  from  the  brown 
soap  stock,  and  this  dark  soap  sediment  is  placed  into  bags, 
where  the  remainder  of  tlie  oil  will  drain  off  ;  and  the  sediment 
has  a  marketable  value  of  3  or  4  cents  a  i)c)und  for  soap-makers. 
The  potash-lye  has  to  be  made  in  iron  pots,  but  tlu;  oil  and  lye 
may  be  mixed  in  wooden  tanks. 

Oils  from  Plants,  odoriferous.  Extraction  of. — This  can  be 
done  by  glycerine.  The  fiowers  are  intnxhiced  into  tlu^  liquid 
and  left  for  3  weeks.  The  glycerine  is  then  drained  off,  and 
may  be  dissidved  in  all  i)ri)porti()ns  in  alcohol  or  water  to  make 
perfumed  liquids  or  washes. 

0[i,s,  Liii{i{i('ATiNfi,T(^stingfor  acids  in. — Dissolve  a  crystallized 
pie(;e  of  carbo.iatc!  of  soda  al)out  as  large  as  a  walnut  in  an  (Mjual 
i)ulk  of  water,  and  |)lace,  the  solution  in  a  Hask  with  sonu;  of  tlie 
oil.  if,  on  settling  after  thorough  agitation,  a  largi;  quantity  of 
precipitate  forms,  tlu;  oil  should  be  rejected  as  impure.  As  oils 
are  often  clarified  and  l)leached  with  acids,  which  injure  the 
metals  on  which  they  are  usimI,  this  is  an  inii)ortant  point  to 
know. 

On,,  Si'iCHM,  To  prevent  gumuiiug. —  It  may  he  purified  by  agi- 
tating 100  parts  oil  with  4  parts  chloride  of  lime  and  12  water; 
a  small  (piantity  of  decoction  of  oak  hark  is  alterward  added  to 
remov(!  all  tnici-sof  gelatinous  matter  which  it  retains,  and  tlu^ 
mixture  is  left  to  settle.  Tlu^  clear  oil  is  afterward  agitated 
with  a  snuill  i)orlion  of  sul|)huric  acid,  again  clarified  by  subsi- 
dence), and  waslied  to  remove  adhering  sulphuric  acid.  The  ad- 
dition of  mineral  oils,  as  heavy  kerosi-ne,  has  also  tlie  tendency 
to  prevent  guMiniing,  or  at:  least  greatly  to  diniinisli  it. 

Oll,H,V()i,ATii-K,  Explosion  of. — A  mixture  of  2  ]iartH  of  perfectly 
dry  permangatiati!  of  potassium  with  2  or  3  parts  of  concentrated 
sulphuric;  acid  is  a  most  powerful  oxidizing  agent,  owing  to  the 
sepiiratioii  of  permanganic  acid  and  its  immediatf!  decomposition 
with  the  liheratioi)  of  oxygen.  Volatile  oils  are  violenily  affect- 
ed l)y  this  mixture,  if  about  10  drops  are  pluced  in  a  little  disli 
and  then  touched  with  a  stout  glass,  rod  previously  dipped  into 
the  mixture.     'I'he  following  produce  exploBJons,  often  most  vio- 


PKACTICAL    TECHJ^"OLOGY.  187 

lently  :  oils  of  thyme,  mace,  turpentine  (rectified),  spike,  cinna- 
mon, origanum,  rue,  cubebs,  and  lemon.  The  following  oils  are 
simply  inflamed,  particularly  if  poured  upon  blotting-paper  and 
touched  with  the  mixture,  though  under  certain  still  unknown 
circumstances  explosion  may  occur  :  oils  of  rosemary,  lavender, 
cloves,  rose,  geranium,  gaultheria,  caraway,  cajeput,  bitter- 
almond,  and  rectified  petroleum.  The  following  substances  are 
ignited  without  explosion  :  alcohol,  ether,  wood-spirit,  benzole, 
chlorelayl,  sulphide  of  carbon,  and  cotton.  Gun-cotton  and  gun- 
powder are  not  ignited. 

Petroleum,  Test  for  illuminating. — Fill  a  tumbler  full  of 
water  at  110°  Fahr.  Stir  in  a  tablespoonful  of  the  oil  to  be  tested, 
and  leave  until  the  oil  reaches  about  the  same  temperature.  Pas^s 
a  lighted  match  over  the  oil  as  it  fioats  on  the  surface.  If  the  oil 
does  not  ignite,  it  can  be  safely  used  ;  if  it  does,  discard  it,  how- 
ever cheap  the  price  may  be.  Improved  test  proposed  by  Dr.  Van 
der  Weyde  :  Fill  a  narrow  test-tube  with  the  petroleum  to  be 
tested,  close  it  with  the  finger,  invert  it,  and  plunge  entirely  in 
water  of  some  140°  Fahr.  ;  wait  until  the  temperature  has 
descended  to  110°  ;  if  then  any  gas-bubbles  are  seen  in  the 
closed  upper  part  of  the  test-tube  the  oil  contains  dangerous  in- 
flammable vapors.  As  all  vapors  of  petroleum  are  inflammable, 
it  is  not  necessary  to  ignite  them  ;  the  demonstration  of  their 
presence  in  this  way  is  sufficient  to  condemn  such  oil. 

Raw  Hide,  To  dissolve. — This  can  be  done  completely  in  water 
heated  under  pressure. 

Resins,  Solubility  of. — Copal,  amber,  dammar,  colophony, 
lac  (or  shellac),  elemi,  sandarac,  mastic,  and  carnauba  wax  (a 
resin)  have  been  experimented  upon.  Amber,  shellac,  elemi, 
sandarac,  and  mastic  swell  u^p  and  increase  in  bulk  when  heated  ; 
the  others  fuse  quietly.  Carnauba  wax  melts  in  boiling  water, 
colophony  becomes  pasty  therein,  while  dammar,  shellac,  elemi, 
and  mastic  agglutinate.  Copal,  amber,  and  sandarac  do  not 
change  in  water. 

Alcohol  does  not  dissolve  amber  or  dammar  ;  it  agglutinates 
copal,  and  partly  dissolves  elemi  and  carnauba  wax  ;  while  colo- 
phony, shellac,  sandarac,  and  mastic  are  readily  soluble  therein. 

Ether  does  not  dissolve  amber  and  shellac  ;  it  makes  copals 
swell,  and  partly  but  slowly  dissolves  carnauba  wax  ;  it  readily 
dissolves  dammar,  coloi)hony,  elemi,  sandarac,  and  mastic. 

Acetic  acid  does  not  dissolve  amber  and  shellac  ;  it  causes  copal 
to  swell  ;  it  somewhat  acts  upon  carnauba  wax,  but  not  at  all  \ipon 
any  other  of  the  resins  above  named.  A  hot  solution  of  caustic 
soda,  of  sp.  gr.  1.074,  readily  dissolves  shellac,  with  difficulty 
colophony,  and  has  no  action  upon  the  rest.  In  sulphide  of  car- 
bon, amber  and  shellac  are  insoluble ;  copal  swells  therein  ; 
elemi,  sandarac,  mastic,  and  carnauba  wax  are  with  difficulty 
dissolved,  while  dammar  and  colophony  are  readily  so.  Oil  of 
turpentine  has  no  action  upon  amber  or  shellac  ;  it  causes  copal 
to  swell,  and  readily  dissolves  dammar,  colophony,  elemi,  san- 
darac, carnauba,  and  very  readily  mastic.  Sulphuric  acid  does 
not  dissolve  carnauba  wax ;  it  dissolves  and  colors  all  other 
resins  brown,  except  dammar,  which  becomes  bright  red.     Nitric 


188  pHactical  technology. 

acid  docs  not  act  upon  the  resins,  but  covers  carnauba  wax 
straw-vellow,  elemi  dirty  yellow,  and  mastic  and  sandarac 
bright"  brown.  Ammonia  does  not  dissolve  some  of  these  resins, 
but  causes  copal,  sandarac,  and  mastic  first  to  swell,  afterward 
dissolving  them  ;  colophony  is  easily  soluble  therein. 

EuBBEK,  Solvents  for— These  are  ether  (free  from  alcohol), 
chloroform,  bisulphide  of  carbon,  coal  naphtha,  and  rectified  oil  of 
turpentine.  By  long  boiling  in  water,  rubber  softens,  swells,  and 
becomes  more  soluble  in  its  peculiar  menstrua  ;  but  when  exposed 
to  the  air,  it  speedily  resumes  its  pristine  consistence  and  volume. 
Oil  of  turpentine  dissolves  caoutchouc  only  when  the  oil  is  very 
pure  and  with  the  ap])licati()n  of  heat  ;  the  ordinary  oil  of  turpen- 
tine of  commerce  cau.ses  india-rubber  to  swell  rather  than  to  be- 
come dissolved.  In  order  to  prevent  the  viscosity  of  the  india- 
rubber  when  evaporated  from  its  solution,  one  part  of  caoutchouc 
is  worked  up  with  two  ])arts  of  turpentine  into  a  thin  paste,  to 
which  is  added  +  part  of  a  hot  conceatrated  solution  of  sulphuret 
of  potassium  in  water  ;  the  yellow  liquid  formed  leaves  the 
caoutchouc  perfectly  elastic  and  without  any  viscosity.  The  solu- 
tions of  caoutchouc  in  coal-tar,  naphtha,  and  benzoline  are  most 
suited  to  unite  i)ieces  of  caoutchouc,  but  the  odor  of  the  solvents 
is  perceptible  f:r  a  long  time.  Sulphide  of  carbon  is  the  best  sol- 
vent for  caoutchouc.  This  solution,  owing  to  the  volatility  of  the 
menstrum,  soon  dries,  leaving  the  latter  in  its  natural  state. 
When  alcohol  is  mixed  with  sulphide  of  carbon,  the  latter  does 
not  any  longer  dissolve  the  caoutchouc,  but  simply  softens  it.  and 
renders  it  capable  of  being  more  readily  vulcanized.  Alcohol 
also  precipitates  solutions  of  caoutchouc.  When  caoutchouc  is 
treated  with  hot  naphtha  distilled  from  native  petroleum  or  coal- 
tar,  it  swells  to  30  times  its  foriiicr  bulk  ;  and  if  then  tritu- 
rated with  a  pestle  and  pressed  through  a  sieve,  it  affonis  a  ho- 
mogeneous varnish,  the  same  that  is  used  in  preparing  the  patent 
water  i)roof  cloth  of  Macintosh.  Caoutchouc  dissolves  in  the 
fixed  oils,  such  as  linsecd-oil,  but  the  varnish  has  not  the  ]>roper 
ty  of  becoming  concrete  on  exposure  to  thi'  air.  ('aout<^ho\ic  melts 
at  a  heat  of  about  2m'  or  2(50  aft.-r  it  has  been  nudted  ;  it  does 
not  solidity  on  cooling,  but  forms  a  sticky  mass  which  does  not 
l)ecome  solid  even  when  exposed  to  the  air  for  months.  Owing  to 
this  ])roj)erty,  it  furnishes  a  valuable  material  for  the  lubrication 
of  stop-cocks  and  joints  intended  to  n-niain  air  tight  and  yet  be 
movable. 

RlTHiiKU,  To  cut. — Dip  the  knife-blade  in  a  ftolulion  of  caustic 
potash. 

ViNK(i.\K,  Making,  from  alcohol  (.Xrtiis's  process). — Dissolve^ 
oz.  dry  bichlorid.- of  i)lalinuni  in  5  lbs.  of  alcohol  With  this 
moisten  li  lbs.  of  charcoal  broken  to  the  size  id  a  hazel-nut.  ll<-at 
the  charcoal  in  a  covered  criu-ible,  and  place  it  in  the  bottom  of  a 
vinegar  vat.  This  (anses  the  rai)id  oxiiiation  of  tin;  a'^oh'd. 
Reheat  the  charcoal  onc.t  in  5  wiM-ks. 


THE    FARM. 


FARM   BITILDINGS. 


Beams,  Fastening  in  walls. — The  usual  custom  of  building 
the  ends  of  floor-timbers  into  brick  and  stone  walls  is  apt,  in  case 
of  fire,  to  throw  over  the  walls  ;  and  resting  the  timbers  on  cor- 
bels interferes  with  the  cornice-line  below.  By  cutting  the  ends 
of  the  timbers  on  a  bevel  and  laying  in  the  wall,  as  in  the  annex- 


SETTING  BEAMS   IN   WAllS. 

ed  diagram,  the  cornice-line  will  not  be  broken  ;  and,  in  case  of 
fire,  the  timbers  will  fall  with  little  injury  to  the  wall. 

Blasting. — In  small  blasts,  1  lb.  of  powder  will  loosen  about 
4i  tons  of  rock.  In  large  blasts,  1  lb.  of  powder  will  loosen  2.} 
tons.  50  or  GO  lbs.  of  powder  inclosed  in  a  bag  and  hung  against 
a  barrier  will  demolish  any  ordinary  structure.  One  man  can 
bore  with  a  bit  1  in.  in  diameter,  fnjm  50  to  60  in.  per  day  of  10 
hours  in  granite,  or  300  to  400  in.  per  day  in  limestone.  Two 
strikers  and  a  holder  can  bore  with  a  bit  3  in.  in  diameter  10  ft. 
per  day  in  rock  of  medium  hardness. 

Bricks  from  Gas-Coal  Ashes.— These  are  of  remarkable 
lightness,  porosity,  and  dryness.  Tlie  ashes,  after  being  taken 
from  the  retorts,  are  spread  on  the  surface  of  a  clean  floor  ;  they 
are  then  finely  pulverized,  and  10  per  cent  of  slaked  lime,  togeth- 
er with  a  small  proportion  of  water,  is  intimately  stirred  and  in- 
corporated with  them.  After  a  rest  of  24  hours,  the  mixture  is 
made  into  bricks  by  the  ordinary  process.     The  bricks  are  imme- 


190  THE    FARM. 


diately  transferred  to  the  drying  slit^ds,  wliere  a  few  days'  expo- 
sure renders  them  fit  for  use. 

Brickwouk,  Preserving.  — To  exclude  dampness,  use  the  fol- 
lowing :  f  lb.  mottled  soap  is  dissolved  in  1  gall,  boiling  water, 
and  the  hot  solution  spread  steadily  with  a  flat  brush  over 
the  outer  surface  of  the  brickwork,  care  being  taken  that  it 
does  not  lather  ;  this  is  allowed  to  dry  for  twenty-four  hours, 
when  a  solution,  formed  of  J  lb.  alum  dissolved  in  2  galls, 
water,  is  applied  in  a  similar  manner  over  the  coating  of  soap. 
The  soap  and  alum  form  an  insoluble  varnish,  which  the  rain  is 
unable  to  penetrate,  and  this  cause  of  dampness  is  thus  said  to 
be  effectually  removed.  The  operation  should  be  performed  in 
dry,  settled  weather. 

Another  method  is  to  use  8  parts  linseed  oil  and  1  part  sulphur, 
heated  together  to  278^,  in  an  iron  vessel. 

Chimneys,  Smoky,  Causes  of. — Want  of  sufficient  height 
in  the  flue.  The  outlet  of  the  chimney  being  jihiced  in  an 
exposed  and  cold  situation,  while  the  air  with  which  the  fire 
is  supplied  is  drawn  from  a  warmer  and  more  sheltered  re- 
gion. Excessive  width  in  the  flue,  by  which  a  large  volume  of 
cold  air  is  drawn  in  and  allowed  to  lower  the  temperature  of  the 
ascending  column.  Low  temperature  of  the  interior  of  the  flue, 
in  comparison  with  that  of  the  external  air.  Humidity  of  the 
air.  Too  accurate  fitting  of  the  windows  and  door.s,  and  joints  in 
the  flooring.  Tlie  draft  of  one  Are  injuring  that  of  others  in  the 
same  house.  A  current  caused  by  the  heat  of  the  fire  circulating 
in  the  room.  A  flue  of  insufficient  size.  A  foul  flue.  Displace- 
ment of  masonry,  or  accumulation  of  mortar  within  the  flue. 
The  sudden  obstruction  of  the  draft,  by  gusts  of  wind  entering 
the  chimney-top.  Increase  of  density  of  the  air  at  the  chimney- 
top,  duo  to  the  eff(M-t  of  wind  in  chimneys  rising  from  the  eav(?s 
of  roofs.  Drafts  within  the  room  which  throw  the  smoke  out  of 
the  influence  of  the  ascending  chimney  current. 

Chimneys,  Smoky,  Preventing  efl'ects  of. — A  screen  or  blower 
of  wire  gauze,  from  ;j6  to  40  wires  to  tins  inch,  placed  in  front  of 
range  or  stove  lires,  will  prevent,  it  is  said,  smoke  coming  into 
the  room  when  tlu^  cliimney  fails  to  draw  well. 

CisTEHN,  Building  a. — One  thing  is  essential,  and  is  very  ge- 
nerally neglected.  It  is  to  have  tlui  water  as  it  comes  into  tiie 
cist(!rM  conducted  to  tlie  liottom.  In  this  way,  the  water  is  en- 
tirely changed  when  it  rains.  When  the  fresli  water  simply 
pours  in  at  tin;  top,  it  immediatidy  runs  olT,  and  all  tiu!  nuiss  of 
stagnant  water  remains  undisturb(Hl,  and  soon  becx)mea  impure. 

ClsTKKN  Fii-TER. — .\  wall  of  Soft  luirned  bricks  is  well  adapt- 
ed for  tills  i)urpos(!,  wlien  built  up  within  the  cist<!rn. 

CoNCKKTE  FoiJND.VTiONS,  To  build. — The  concrete  is  c/mipos- 
(fd  of  lime,  sand,  wiitcr,  grave],  and  round  or  lirolcen  stones. 
A  trench  of  l)oardH  is  first  made,  f)f  the  widtii  of  the  desired  foun- 
dation. Fill  tlu!  tnmcli  witli  the  concrete  to  the  depth  of  a  foot 
or  two,  and  let  it  stand  until  sullicitntly  hard  ;  then  add  another 
footof  concrete,  and  so  go  on,  ad<Hng  concrete  and  raising  trench- 
boards  as  tlic  Willi  rlsrs. 


THE    FARM.  IPl 

CoNCKETE  Pavements. — The  cheapest  material  for  mixing 
with  gravel  is  coal-tar  from  gas-works. 

Greenhouse,  To  build  a  cheap. — Mr.  Peter  Henderson  says 
the  ordinary  span-roof  is  best.  The  walls  are  4  ft.  high,  formed 
of  locust  or  cedar  posts.  To  the  outside  of  these  are  nailed 
boards — rough  hemlock  will  do,  if  appearances  are  not  consid- 
ered. To  the  boards  is  tacked  the  ordinary  tarred  paper  used  by 
roofers.  Against  the  paper  is  again  nailed  the  outer  or  weather 
boarding.  This  makes  really  a  better  wall  for  greenhouse  pur- 
poses than  an  8-inch  one  of  brick,  as  we  find  that  the  extremes 
of  temperature  of  the  greenhouse — inside  at  50°,  and  perhaps  10° 
below  zero  outside — very  soon  destroy  an  8-inch  solid  brick  wall, 
particularly  if  exposed  to  the  north  or  west.  A  wall  of  wood  con- 
structed as  above  will  last  for  twenty  years,  and  be  as  good  a  pro- 
tection as  one  of  8-inch  brick.  The  roof  is  formed  by  the  ordina- 
ry sashes,  6  ft.  in  length  by  3  ft.  in  width,  which  can  be  bought 
ready  made.  Heat  with  a  flue  not  more  than  60  and  not  less  than 
30  ft.  in  length  ;  if  more,  the  flue  would  not  heat  it  enough,  and 
if  less  it  would  be  likely  to  get  too  much  heat.  About  50  ft.  by 
11  is,  we  think,  the  best  size  of  a  greenhouse  to  heat  with  a  flue. 
The  flue  should  run  all  around  the  house — that  is,  it  should  start 
along  under  one  bench,  cross  the  end,  and  return  under  the  other 
bench  to  the  end  where  it  begins,  making  the  length  of  flue  in  a 
greenhouse  of  50  feet  about  110  feet  long.  It  should  have  a 
"  rise  "  in  this  length  from  the  furnace  of  at  least  18  in.,  to  se- 
cure a  free  draught.  For  the  first  25  ft.  of  flue  nearest  the  fur- 
nace it  should  be  built  of  brick,  forming  an  air-space  inside  of 
about  7  x  7  in.  From  this  point  (25  ft.  from  the  fire)  the  flue 
should  be  formed  of  the  ordinary  drain-pipe  cement  or  terra-cot- 
ta.  The  former  is  to  be  preferred,  and  that  of  7  or  8  in.  diame- 
ter is  best.  The  cost  of  a  greenhouse  thus  built  in  the  vicinity 
of  New-York,  is  about  $6  per  running  foot — that  is,  one  50  ft. 
long  by  11  ft.  wide  costs  $300. 

Ice-House,  To  build  an.—A  house  12  ft.  square  by  8  or  9  ft. 
high  is  large  enough  for  a  good-sized  family.  It  may  be  a  frame 
building,  entirely  above  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  better  if 
supported  on  posts,  elevated  a  few  inches,  to  be  certain  of  good 
drainage.  Build  of  joists,  3x3  in.,  with  an  outer  boarding,  hav- 
ing inside  another  series  of  uprights,  also  boarded,  from  6  to  10 
in.  removed  from  the  outer  shell,  with  a  solid  floor  of  plank,  the 
space  between  the  two  walls  filled  with  tan,  sawdust,  straw  or 
chaff,  and  a  roof  of  good  pitch.  A  drain  for  water  should  be 
made  from  the  floor,  and  the  space  above  the  uprights,  between  a 
loose  flooring  and  the  pitch  of  the  roof,  filled  with  straw,  hay,  or 
some  other  dry,  porous  material.  On  the  roof  should  be  a  venti- 
lator, the  top  defended  from  rain  or  snow.  The  ice  should  be 
packed  in  one  solid  mass,  the  sides  not  reaching  the  inner  walls, 
but  allowing  a  space  of  from  6  to  12  in.  all  around.  The  top  of 
the  ice  should  be  covered  with  straw,  and  the  door  should  be  like 
the  sides  of  the  building,  or  double  doors  should  be  made,  one  in 
the  outer  and  the  other  in  the  inner  wall.  Plant  morning-glories 
or  any  other  climbing  plant  about  the  building,  and  train  them 
up  over  the  roof,  so  that  their  foliage  will  serve  as  a  protection 
against  the  sun. 


19-2  THE    FARM. 

LiGHTNiNG-RODS,  Valuable  hints  concerning. — Feather-beds 
are  not  a  protection  frona  lightning.  The  human  body  is  a 
better  conductor  of  electricity  than  feather-beds  or  other  objects 
ordinarily  contained  in  the  apartments  of  dwellings,  and  there- 
fore, when  the  lightning  enters  an  apartment,  the  human  body  is 
likely  to  form  one  in  a  chain  of  inductions,  determining  the  path 
of  an  electrical  discharge,  unless  better  conductors  are  in  its  vi- 
cinity to  divert  this  action. 

The  only  place  of  absolute  security  in  a  thunder-storm  is  an  iron 
building  ;  or  nest  in  safety  is  a  building  properly  protected  by 
lightning-rods. 

A  copper  rod  of  one  inch  in  diameter,  or  an  equal  quantity  of 
copper  under  any  other  form,  will  resist  the  effect  of  any  discharge 
of  lightning  hitherto  experienced.  The  copper  rod  is  therefore 
the  safest  and  best  material  that  can  be  used,  but  it  is  expensive. 
Iron  rods  of  one  inch  in  diameter  are  very  commonly  used,  and, 
if  pointed  with  solid  copper  and  properly  put  up,  are  efficacious 
in  the  great  majority  of  cases.  The  particular  form  of  the  rod 
makes  no  difference.  It  may  be  round  or  square,  twisted  or  hol- 
low, composed  of  one  solid  piece  or  made  of  wires  twisted  to- 
gether. It  is  the  quantity  of  metal  contained  in  the  cross-section 
of  the  rod  that  is  of  value,  not  the  form. 

Lightning-rods  are  provided  with  sharp  points  to  allow  the  ac- 
cumulated negative  fluid  to  pass  off  readily  into  the  air  and  neu- 
tralize the  positive  fluid  of  the  thunder-cloud. 

The  object  being  to  make  so  good  a  passage  for  the  lightning 
to  the  ground  as  to  remove  all  danger  of  its  leaping  to  some  con- 
ductor in  tlie  house,  the  greatest  care  must  be  taken  not  to  have 
any  break  in  tlie  conductivity.  As  it  is  inconvenient  to  manufac- 
ture or  tran.^port  the  rods  in  one  piece,  the  different  parts  must  be 
in  intimate  connection  when  they  are  put  up  ;  it  is  best  to  have 
them  soldered,  and  the  joints  protected  from  the  air  and  moisture. 

The  point  of  the  rod  should  be  extended  a  little  above  the  chim- 
ney or  highest  part  of  tlie  building,  and  should  be  fastened  in 
contact  with  the  l)uilding  by  stajjles  or  cleats.  Glass  insulators 
sliould  not  be  emi)loyed.  It  nuikes  no  difference  in  conductivity 
whether  the  rod  is  painted  or  not  painted. 

No  building  can  be  said  to  be  properly  rodded  or  protected 
against  lightning,  unless  the  lower  part  of  the  rod  or  terminal 
ui\der  the  ground  is  made  quite  extensive.  The  extremity  of  the 
rod  should  connect  with  masses  of  good  conducting  materials, 
such  as  old  iron,  or  iron  ore,  or  coke,  or  charcoal,  laid  in  trenches, 
or  the  rod  itself  should  be  elongated,  sunk  deep  in  the  ground, 
and  curried  a  considerable  distance  from  the  building,  and  juit  in 
.•oiinection  witli  water,  or  moist  earth  if  possible.  Tlu'  golden 
riiit-  for  safety  is  :  "  Provide  the  largest  possible  area  of  conduct- 
ing 8urfac(!  for  tlie  terminal  of  the  rod." 

A  lightning-rod  which  is  not  properly  connected  with  the  earth 
is  quite  dangerous.  The  very  common  method  of  merely  stick- 
ing the  lower  end  of  the  rod  down  into  the  dry  earth  near  the 
surfa<-eof  the  ground  is  bail, and  endangers  the  building,  because 
dry  earth  is  such  ai)oor  coiKluctor,  and  tlie  amount  of  rod  surface 
in  contact  witli  the  earth  is  so  small  I'nder  such  conditions,  a 
portion  of  the  electric  current  will  be  liktdy  to  find  an  easier  path 


THE    FAEM.  193 

to  the  earth,  through  the  building  than  through  the  rod ;  and  a 
part  of  the  electricity  will  therefore  leave  the  rod,  strike  into  the 
building,  and  down  in  various  directions  into  the  earth,  making 
havoc  as  it  goes.  As  a  measure  of  prudence,  house-owners  should 
look  to  the  terminals  of  their  lightning-rods,  and  place  there  a 
considerable  amount  of  the  conducting  materials  above  named. 

It  was  supposed  to  have  beeu  established  by  Charles  and  Gay 
Lussac  that  a  liglitning-rod  protected  an  area  whose  radius  was 
doulile  the  height  of  the  rod  extending  above  the  building  ;  but 
this  rule  is  no  longer  reliable,  by  reason  of  the  extensive  use  of 
metals  in  the  shape  of  pipes,  etc.,  in  the  construction  of  the  build- 
ings of  our  day. 

When  electricity  finds  several  paths  to  the  ground,  it  will  pre- 
fer the  best,  it  is  true  ;  but  some  portion  will  also  pass  along  the 
poorer  conductors  If,  therefore,  any  metallic  substances  lie 
within  the  area  supposed  to  be  protected,  they  are  in  danger  of 
being  struck.  This  is  especially  true  where  the  lightning  has  a 
chance  to  jump  to  the  gas  and  water  pipes  of  a  building.  It  is  a 
good  plan  to  connect  these  pipes  with  the  lightning-rod  ;  if  the 
rod  is  struck,  the  electricity  will  then  have  an  excellent  path  into 
the  ground,  and  will  be  rapidly  diffused  over  the  vast  underground 
network  of  pipes.  The  danger  to  the  inmates  of  the  house  of 
being  struck  from  these  pipes  is  less  than  that  of  receiving  a 
shock  from  the  powerful  induced  currents  liable  to  be  developed 
in  them,  if  unconnected,  during  a  thunder-storm. 

The  more  rods  on  a  building  the  better,  especially  if  all  are 
connected  with  each  other  near  their  upper  ends. 

Finally,  in  the  way  of  general  advice,  we  would  say:  Connect 
all  your  lightning-rods  together,  and  also  to  your  iron  tank,  and 
water,  gas.  or  other  pipes,  not  by  separate  connections,  but  so  that 
there  is  some  connection  between  all,  which  connection  should  be 
as  high  up  as  possible.  If  you  have  a  metal  roof,  connect  all  rods 
with  it.  If  the  roof  is  not  of  metal,  then  connect  your  rods  to- 
gether by  means  of  a  good-sized  conductor  running  along  the 
ridge  of  the  roof.  Bear  in  mind  that,  to  carry  off  the  heaviest 
lightning-flash  known,  a  copper  rod  one  inch  in  diameter  is  not 
considered  too  large  ;  and  though  of  course  such  flashes  are  of 
very  rare  occurrence,  they  may  come.  Hence  the  great  value  of 
uniting  your  different  rods  high  up. 

Mortar,  Good  weatherproof. — 3  bushels  clean  sand,  mingled 
with  I  bushel  good  lime  and  i  bushel  cement,  makes  an  excellent 
mortar  which  is  not  liable  to  be  dislodged  by  storms. 

Mortar,  To  make. — The  lime  ought  to  be  pure,  completely 
free  from  carbonic  acid,  and  in  the  state  of  a  very  fine  powder  ; 
the  sand  should  be  free  from  clay,  partly  in  the  state  of  fine  sand 
and  partly  gravel  ;  the  water  should  be  pure,  and,  if  previously 
saturated  with  lime,  so  much  the  better.  The  best  proportions 
are  3  parts  fine  sand,  4  parts  coarse  sand,  1  part  quicklime  recent- 
ly slaked,  and  as  little  water  as  possible.  There  should  always 
be  enough  water  added  at  first  ;  if  water  is  added  after  slaking 
has  begun,  it  will  be  chilled  and  the  mortar  lumpy.  The  addition 
of  burnt  bones  improves  mortar  by  giving  it  tenacity,  and  ren- 
ders it  less  apt  to  crack  in  drying. 


194  THE    FARM. 

Oak  Timber,  Seasoning. — Oak  loses  about  };  its  weight  in  sea- 
soning, and  about  ^  its  weight  in  becoming  perfectly  dry. 

Pavement,  Farmyard. — Make  a  concrete  of  gravel  or  sand  and 
Portland  cement ;  or  easier,  of  gravel,  sand,  coal-ashes,  and  coal- 
tar.  Dig  away  the  earth  for  5  in.,  lay  a  bottom  of  pebbles  as 
large  as  goose-eggs,  ramming  well  down.  Sweep  off  clean,  and 
pay  the  surface  with  hot  coal-tar,  thinly  ;  ]iut  on  a  coat  of  small 
er  gravel  previously  dipped  in  hot  tar,  drained,  and  rolled  in  coal 
ashes  with  an  intermixture  of  gravel.  Roll  it  down  as  compact- 
ly as  possible.  Let  the  roller  run  slow,  and  let  a  boy  follow  it 
with  a  hoe  to  scrape  all  adherent  gravel.  Next,  put  on  a  coat  of 
fine  gravel  or  sand,  coal-tar  and  some  coal-ashes,  to  complete  the 
surface.  Roll  again.  This  will  take  some  weeks  to  harden,  but 
will  shed  water,  and  eventually  form  a  very  firm  surface.  Do  not 
use  too  much  tar,  but  only  enough  to  make  the  ingredients  cohere 
under  pressure. 

R.\t-Pkoi)F  Buildings. — The  plan  adopted  in  England  is  to 
have  slate  fioors,  sawed  and  planed  to  uniform  sizes  and  thick- 
ness. The  walls  are  also  covered  with  sawed  or  planed  slates, 
well  jointed  and  secured  to  the  wall  or  studding  with  screws, 
wliich  makes  each  room  as  secure  against  rats  as  an  iron  or  stone 
box  would  be.  The  slate  used  for  the  fioor  is  from  1  to  2  in.  thick, 
and  that  for  the  walls  i  in.  thick. 

Rat-Phook  Frame  Buildings. — Xail  strips  of  board  to  the 
sill  between  each  flooring  joist, on  the  inside,  reaching  to  the  un- 
der side  of  the  flooring  planks  or  boards,  and  thereby  covering  the 
shelf  formed  by  the  sill  between  tlie  joists.  The  idea  is  to  allow 
the  rats  no  place  to  stand  upon  while  they  are  cutting  through 
the  floor. 

Roads,  Corduroy,  To  build. — First  lay  all  small  poles  or 
brush  transversely  and  across  the  road.  Next  take  long  trees — 
the  smallest  ends  being  at  least  10  inches  diameter — and  ])lace 
them  longitudinally  across  the  poles,  in  two  rows,  8  feet  apart 
from  centre  to  centre,  making  the  ends  at  the  junction  of  each 
])iece  lap  each  other  at  least  8  feet,  breaking  joint  on  either  side, 
and  jjlacing  upon  these  ends  large  logs  of  sullicient  length  to  ex- 
tend across  the  road,  and  3  feet  on  each  side  of  these  stringers. 
Cover  the  stringers  with  transverse;  logs,  12  feet  long  from  scarf 
to  scarf,  and  at  least  10  inches  in  diamettir  at  the  smallest  end, 
fitted  close  together  on  tlu^  straight  portions  ;  the  logs  alternated 
with  a  large  and  small  end,  and  on  the  outer  side  of  curves,  all 
the  large  <;nds,  wliieh  will  assist  in  the  curvatur<>of  the  road  and 
thr-  gravity  of  the  vehi<;les.  Next,  adze  off"  the  centre  ridges  of 
thest;  logs  to  a  face  of  about  5  inches,  for  a  width  of  9  feet  in  the 
(■(!ntre  of  the  roadway,  and  cover  this  9  f«'et  with  gravel,  to  fill  in 
between  the;  logs,  and  giv(;  a  smooth  surface.  A  good  plan  is  to 
lay  on  the  top  of  the  road  thus  formed  poles  of  5  or  0  inches  in 
diameter,  si)ilied  down  on  each  sidt^  of  the  track,  every  10  f(;et, 
with  oak  i>ins,  to  jireveiit,  in  frosty  weaiher,  the  lateral  sliding 
of  wagons. 

RuoKiN<i,  Pasteboard  ami  asphalt — This  material  is  most 
suitable  for  fl:il  roofs,  having  a  fall  of  l.J  inches  to  4^  inches  per 


THE    FARM.  19,-, 

running  foot.  It  may,  however,  also  be  used  for  roofs  liavinjr  .a 
greater  fall,  the  expense  being  in  this  case  somewhat  larger  tlian 
ior  flat  roofs,  as  the  laying  on  is  more  difficult.  Cover  the  roof 
first  with  dry  boards,  f  incli  to  1  inch  thick,  and  not  above  6  inch- 
es broad  ;  it  more  than  ihe  last-named  width,  or  if  not  suffi- 
ciently dry,  the  boards  ought  to  be  split  once  before  being  laid  on, 
in  order  to  keep  them  from  warping,  and  every  board  should  be 
fastened  with  three  nails  at  least  on  each  of  the  rafters.  The 
boards  do  not  require  to  be  rabbeted  ;  only  those  ends  of  the 
boards  which  form  the  eaves,  by  extending  beyond  tbe  wall  need 
to  be  joined  in  the  said  manner.  In  case  of  boards  |  inch  thick 
being  applied,  the  rafters  f^hould  not  be  moie  than  2  feet  from 
each  other,  as  the  boards  may  be  too  elastic  and  not  strong 
enough  to  support  the  weight  of  the  workmen,  while  the  ronf 
will  not  be  perfectly  substantial. 

The  roofing  may  be  done  either  from  gable  to  gable,  or  from 
the  eaves  to  the  foot-ridge,  the  fir.-t  roll  being  laid  with  a  bend 
of  1  inch  beyond  the  roof,  and  fastened  with  the  flat-headed  iron 
wire  nails  supplied  for  that  purpose.  The  second  roll  is  laid  li 
inches  over  the  first,  and  so  on  till  the  roof  is  covered.  The  joints 
and  heads  of  the  nails  are  then  coated  witli  asphalt  mastic,  and 
the  seams  thus  coated  are  strewed  with  dry  sand.  The  whole 
roof  is  then  coated  with  the  mastic,  and  covered  with  sand.  This 
coating,  which  is  only  to  be  effected  in  dry  weather,  renders  the 
roof  perfectly  water-tight,  and  it  can  then,  if  desired,  be  painted 
or  whitewasbed.  A  hundredweight  of  mastic  covers  a  surface  of 
65  square  yards.  This  process  is  in  use  in  Copenhagen,  Den- 
mark, and  the  roof  weighs  about  ^  the  weight  of  a  tiled  roof,  and 
is  substantial,  resisting  alike  the  influenceof  water,  fire,  heat,  and 
cold. 

Roofing,  Portland  cement  and  tar. — The  inclination  of  the 
frameworkr  of  the  roof  (which  must  have  an  even  surface)  should 
be  at  the  rate  of  from  +  to  |  inch  per  foot.  The  rafters  or  joists 
should  not  be  more  than  2  feet  3  inches  apart,  S)  as  to  give  suffi 
cient  strength.  As  the  rafters  rest  on  the  side  walls,  a  compara- 
tively  small  quantity  of  timber  is  required.  Boards  of  1  inch  or 
IJ  inch  thick  are  fastened  or  nailed  on  the  rafters,  and  should  be 
dovetailed.  These  are  then  covered  with  a  layer  of  sand  i  or  i. 
inch  thick,  in  order  to  produce  an  even  surface.  Strong  brown 
paper,  in  continuous  rolls,  and  as  broad  as  possible,  is  then  laid 
upon  it,  so  that  each  length  overlaps  the  other  by  about  4  inches. 
When  the  whole  or  a  large  part  has  thus  been  covered  with  pa- 
per, the  mixture  is  put  into  a  caldron,  in  the  proportion  of  tar  100 
pounds  to  Portland  cement  180  pounds.  Care  must  be  taken  to 
heat  the  tar  gently,  and  to  mix  the  cement  with  it  gradually,  in 
order  to  prevent  its  boiling  over.  This  mixture  of  tar  and  ce- 
ment mtist  then  be  laid  on  as  hot  as  possible  on  the  paper  with  a 
tar-brush.  The  next  layer  of  paper  is  then  laid  upon  it,  and 
smoothed  with  a  light  wooden  roller.  In  this  way  the  whole 
roof  must  be  covered.  In  order  to  break  the  joints  of  the  paper, 
begin  the  second  layer  with  half  the  breadth,  and  proceed  as  be- 
fore. The  third  and  fourth  layers  are  laid  in  like  manner,  with 
alternate  layers  of  cement  and"  brown  paper  The  last  layer  must 
be  carefully  covered  with  cement,  and  then  strewn  with  sifted 


196  THE    FARM. 

ash.es  to  the  thickness  of  i  inch.  Next  to  the  gutter  is  a  board 
covered  with  zinc,  and  projecting  about  3  inches.  It  should  be 
laid  on  after  the  second  layer  has  been  completed,  so  as  to  be  co- 
vered by  the  third  and  fourth.  If  there  are  any  chimneys  pro  • 
jecting  through  the  roof,  they  should  be  surrounded  with  zinc 
immediately  after  the  first  layer  has  been  finished. 

Roofing  Zinc. — Permit  perfect  freedom  to  the  sheets.  Confine 
them  nowhere,  and  separate  lengths  of  guttering,  and  any  other 
portions  of  a  roof  requiring  to  be  made  in  long  jneces,  as  much  as 
possible.  Eaves-gutters  should  be  made  in  short  lengths,  bent  in 
the  direction  of  the  way  in  which  the  sheet  has  been  rolled  and 
soldered,  the  solder  being  put  between  the  sheets,  and  one  sheet 
lapping  over  the  other.  Nor  must  they  be  screwed  to  the  rafters, 
as  this  is  a  practice  which  occasions  a  constant  failure  in  the 
joints  of  the  iron  eaves-gutters.  Wherever  a  down-pipe  conies, 
there  should  be  a  stopped  end  in  the  gutter  ;  and  the  gutter 
should  not  be  continued  longer  than  possible  in  one  place.  Where 
it  is  laid  behind  a  parapet,  a  separate  piece  of  flashing  will  dis- 
connect it  wholly  from  the  sheeting  on  the  roof.  For  guttering, 
the  gauge  used  should  be  increased  in  proportion  to  length  ; 
there  should  be  a  proper  substance  in  all  cases.  Oak  boarding 
will  spoil  the  zinc,  and  the  fir  boarding  should  be  dry — tlie 
boards  with  an  ajjerture  of  about  ^  inch  between  each.  If  they 
are  damp,  as  much  oxidation  will  take  place  on  the  under  side  of 
the  zinc  as  on  top  of  it.  From  experiment,  it  appears  that  the 
oxidation  proceeds  for  about  four  years,  gradually  diminishing 
after  the  first  three  months,  when  it  hardens  into  a  protecting 
coat  of  a  dark  gray  color,  preserving  the  metal  beneath  from  fur- 
ther d£!terioration.  A  sheet  of  zincexjiosed  to  the  atmosphere  for 
a  series  of  years  loses  little  or  nothing  of  its  weight  or  thick- 
ness, and  its  surface  remains  hard  and  polished  as  enamel. 

Shingles,  To  prevent  decay  of. — Put  into  a  lar^e'tub  1  bar- 
rel of  wood-ashes  lye,  5  pounds  white  vitriol,  5  pounds  alum,  and 
as  mucli  salt  as  will  di.ssolve  in  the  mixture.  Make  the  litpior 
quite  warm,  and  put  in  as  many  shingles  at  a  time  as  it  will  co- 
ver. When  one  batch  of  shingles  is  well  soaked,  remove  and 
put  in  another.  Tiien  lay  the  shingles  in  the  usual  manner. 
With  the  li(juor  that  is  left,  mix  enough  lime  to  make  white- 
wasii,  and  color  witii  lampblack,  oclire,  or  Spanisli  l)rown.  Ap- 
l)ly  to  the  roof  with  a  brush  or  old  broom.  This  wash  may  be 
renewed  from  time  to  time. 

Shinoi.es,  Painting. — Lay  low-priced  shingles — say  from  f2.7o 
to  $4  ]H'r  tiiousand — and  i)aint  {\u-m  witli  a  coat  of  tar  and 
asplialtum — say  one  barnd  coal-tar,  costing  ^;J  ;  ten  ))Ounds  of 
asphailum  at  JJ  cents,  'AO  cents  ;  ten  pounds  ground  slate,  at  1 
cent,  10  cents  ;  two  gallons  dead  oil  at  25  cents,  50  cents,  which 
should  \)t;  added  alter  Dk-  otlier  has  been  wetted  and  tiioroughly 
mixed,  'i'liis  mixture  \^  as  good  as  any  tiling  tluit  can  be  put  on 
to  sliingles,  as  it  will  tliorouglily  iteep  llie,  water  out ;  and,  if 
dry,  they  will  not  rot  under  the  lap,  nor  will  the  nails  rust. 

SiiATKS,  Rooking,  Selection  of. — Dark  purple  and  green  slates 
are  tlic;  best  for  roofing  ;  others  are  liable  to  fade  unequally,  and 
produwi  a  disagreeahle  appearance. 


THE    FARM.  197 

Sled-Body,  To  build  a  transverse. — Make  tke  sills  out  of 
l-incli  or  f-inch  boards,  with  oross-pieces  of  the  same  thickness 
bolted  between  the  sills,  which  are  double.  You  can  make  these 
very  light  and  limber.  Now  put  on  your  side-boards  with  a  bolt 
down  through  the  rave  and  sill,  which  will  make  it  very 
stiff,  and  can  be  made  very  light,  and  with  all  the  strength 
possible. 

Smoke-House,  Cheap  and  good. — For  50  hams,  make  dimen- 
sions 7x8  feet.  Dig  all  the  ground  out  to  below  the  frost  line, 
and  fill  up  to  the  surface  with  small  stones.  On  this  lay  a  brick 
floor  with  lime  mortar.  Walls  of  brick,  8  inches  thick  by  7  feet 
high,  and  a  door  on  one  side,  2  feet  wide.  Door  of  wood,  lined 
within  with  sheet-iron.  For  the  top,  put  on  joists,  2x4,  set  up 
edgewise,  and  8^  inches  from  centre  to  centre,  covered  with  brick 
and  with  a  heavy  coat  of  mortar.  Build  a  small  chimney  over 
the  centre,  arching  it  over  and  covering  it  with  a  single  roof  in 
the  usual  way.  An  arch  should  be  built  on  the  outside,  with  a 
small  iron  door,  similar  to  a  stove-door,  to  shut  it  up.  Make  a 
hole  in  the  arch  through  the  wall  of  the  house,  and  put  an  iron 
grate  over  it.  The  arch  is  much  raore  convenient  to  put  the  fire 
in,  than  to  build  the  fire  inside  the  house,  and  the  chimney 
causes  a  good  draught  through  the  latter.  Burn  good  corn-cobs 
or  hickory  wood.     This  house  should  cost  about  $20. 

Stables,  Building. — Bricks,  built  in  hollow  walls,  are  better 
than  any  other  material.  Commence  with  a  stone  foundation — 
the  bottom  course  of  which  is  broader  than  the  stone-work  above 
it — laid  in  half  cement  mortar  up  to  the  grade  line,  and  then  build 
the  brick  wall  upon  that,  filling  in  all  the  space  inclosed  by  the 
walls  with  concrete  up  to  the  line  of  the  top  of  the  water-table. 
Then  pave  with  stones,  firmly  bedded  to  form  a  floor.  On  the 
outside,  there  should  be  a  stone  water-table,  8  or  10  inches  high, 
projecting  1  or  2  inches  outside  of  the  main  walls  above,  and 
having  the  upper  surface  of  the  projection  beveled  off  to  shed  the 
water.  Just  above  the  water- table,  it  is  well  to  have  a  course  of 
slate  built  in  the  full  thickness  of  the  walls,  which  will  prevent 
any  dampness  rising  up  into  them  from  the  ground  by  capillary 
attraction.  Above  the  water-table,  the  walls  should  be  built  up 
with  a  smooth  face,  and  with  close,  neatly  struck  joints  inside  as 
well  as  out,  so  as  to  present  a  clean,  even  surface,  which  should 
always  be  kept  painted  or  washed  with  a  lime  or  cement  wash. 
Above  the  wall-plate,  the  space  should  be  filled  in  to  the  under 
side  of  the  root-boards.  The  ceilings  over  the  main  story  should 
be  lathed  and  plastered  ;  partly  for  the  sake  of  the  neat  appear- 
ance, partly  to  keep  away  cobwebs  which  infest  exposed  beams, 
and  partly  to  prevent  foul  air  rising  from  the  room  below,  and 
tainting  the  hay-loft.  The  doors  and  windows  inside  should  be 
trimmed  with  architraves,  even  if  the  latter  be  merely  strips  of 
the  cheapest  stuff.  It  may  be  desirable  to  fur  out  and  lath  and 
plaster  the  walls  of  a  stable  ;  but  if  this  is  to  be  done,  it  is  better 
to  wainscot  with  wood  up  to  the  height  of,  say  5  feet,  and  to  fill 
in  the  space  between  the  walls  and  the  wainscot,  as  high  as  prac- 
ticable, with  broken  glass  and  mortar,  and  then  to  lath  and  plas- 
ter from  the  wainscot  up  to  the  ceiling.     A  wooden  stable,  too. 


198  THE    FAKM. 

may  witli  advantage  be  treated  in  the  same  way,  but  the  space 
behind  the  wainscot  being  wider,  may  be  packed  with  bricks  and 
mortar,  and  made  solid  in  that  way. 

Timber,  Strength  of. — The  strongest  side  is  that  which  in  its 
natural  position  faced  the  north. 

Timber,  To  test  the  soundness  of. — Apply  the  ear  to  the  mid- 
dle of  one  of  the  ends,  while  another  person  strikes  upon  the  op- 
posite extremity.  If  the  wood  is  sound  and  of  good  quality,  tlie 
blow  is  very  distinctly  heard,  however  long  the  beam  may  be.  If 
the  wood  is  disaggregated  by  decay  or  otherwise,  the  sound  will 
be  for  the  most  part  destroyed. 

Trough,  To  make  a  tight. — Joint  up  the  plank,  and  then,  with 
a  wide  punch,  set  down  a  groove  about  ^^  in.  deep  the  whole 
length  ;  then  take  off  two  or  three  shavings  more,  and  put  the 
trqugh  together.  When  the  wet  gets  into  that  joint  the  grt)ove 
swells  out  again  just  the  thickness  it  was  at  first,  and  of  course 
two  or  three  shavings  thicker  than  the  plank,  and  so  closes  all 
up  tight.  Wood  can  also  be  ornamented  by  punching  down 
carefully  in  patterns,  planing  ofE  a  little,  and  then  wetting  ;  the 
parts  punched  down  show  in  relief  above  the  planed  surface,  and 
make  quite  a  puzzle. 

Water-Closet,  To  put  up  a. — The  engraving  represents 
sectional  views  of  the  water-closet  in  the  upper  floor  of  a 
two-story  house.  A  A  is  the  level  of  the  surface  of  the  ground  at 
the  back  court  and  of  the  kitchen  floor.  B  is  a  6-inch  vitrified 
fire-clay  siphon-trap,  with  an  open  iron  grating,  C,  at  its  top, 
which  grating  may  be  hinged.  D  is  4  inch  soil-pipe  fnmi  the 
water-closet ;  it  is  here  sliown  coming  down  inside  the  wall  ; 
in  other  cases  it  may  be  carried  down  the  outside.  One  advan- 
tage of  snch  pijies  being  carried  down  the  inside  is  that  they  are 
more  likely  to  be  protected  from  frost.  F  is  a  ^-inch  or  2-inch 
load  pipe  for  ventilating  the  soil  pipe.  In  this  case,  it  is  carried 
througli  the  wall  ;  in  other  cases  it  may  be  carried  up  through 
the  roof,  (i  is  tlie  water-closet  trunk,  made  of  iron,  it  being  a 
pan  water-closet  which  is  here  shown.  H  is  a  finch  h-ad  pipe, 
carried  through  the  wall,  and  put  in  to  ventilate  the  trunk,  or 
tliat  sjjace  between  the  wattT  in  the  pan,  I,  or  basin,  J,  and  tlie 
water  in  the  siplKm-traj),  K.  This  J-incli  ventilating  i)ipe,  H,  is 
a  very  iini)ortant  one,  and  its  use  ought  to  be  th<^  rule  in  ])lace 
of  the  «'Xcei)tion,  as  is  at  i)r<-scnt  the  case.  It  works  as  follows  : 
NN'lien  the  handle  of  the  wati-r-closet  is  lifted,  then  any  foul  air 
lying  in  the  trunk,  in  place  of  coming  out  into  the  apartment,  is 
pent  outside  with  a  rush  tlintugh  this  ]>il)e,  11  ;  besides,  being  oj)en 
to  the  air,  it  tends  to  prevent  tlie  ac<-uinulatinn  of  such  foul  air 
in  the  trunk. 

In  order  to  kei-p  the  outer  oritices  of  the  i)ii)es,  F  and  H,  al- 
ways o|)en,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  solder  on  one  or  two  i)ieces  of 
copper  wire  across  tlieni.  J  is  the  water-closet  basin,  and  the  two 
small  circles  shown,  underutatli  K  K.are  the  india-rubber  i)ipeB. 
A  li-inch  zinc  ventilating  pipe  may  be  carried  up  tlirough  the 
roof  to  vr-niilate  the  space  or  inclosure  in  which  the  water-closet 
is  situated.  A  gas-l)racket  placed  right  below  if  will  help,  when 
lighted,  to  cautfc  an  upward  current.     The  enqjly  space  at  N  is 


TUE    FAKM. 


199 


BUILDING  ■WATER-CLOSETS. 


supposed  to  be  the  water-closet  window.  O  is  the  surface  of  the 
floor  of  the  upper  flat.  No  gas  can  accumulate  in  the  soil-pipe, 
for  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  on  the  surface  of  the  open 
grating,  C,  tends  to  send  a  current  of  fresh  air  through  the  soil- 
pipe  and  out  at  the  ventilating  pipe,  F. 

Water-Gate,  a  good. — This  is  an  excell-nt  device  for  fencing 
purposes  over  small  streams.  A  gate,  sliding  in  upright  ways  at 
the  ends,  like  an  old  turnpike  gate,  has  attached  to  the  bottom 
board  (a  scantling  is  better,  as  not  so  likely  to  be  broken  in  hisfh 
water)  crutches  which  rest  upon  empty  b  irrels  or  casks.  The  up- 
rights at  the  ends  of  the  gate  are  provided  with  friction-rollers, 
so  that  the  jjate  slides  up  and  down  easily  in  th  *  ways.  Two  or 
three  casks  will  generally  support  the  weioht  of  the  gate,  so  that 
it  descends  nearly  to  the  surface  of,  but  does  not  enter,  the  water. 
A  gate  thus  constructed  will  rise  and  fall  with  the  stream,  and 
is  not  liable  to  be  washed  away  at  high  water. 

Whiteavash,  for  outside  work. — Take  quicklime,  i  bushel  ; 
slake,  and  add  coiiinion  salt,  1  pound  :  sulphate  of  zinc,  i 
pound  ;  sweet  milk.  1  ii:allon.  Dissolve  salt  and  zinc  before  add- 
ing, and  mix  tin-  wlmli'  to  [iroper  consistence  with  water. 


2QQ  THE    FAUAt. 

Wooden  Buildings,  To  frame. — Particular  attention  should 
be  paid  to  biiuliug  the  top  of  the  walls  well  together.  This  is 
accomplished  by  framing  the  wall-plate  all  around  the  house, 
and  spiking  the  ceiling  joists  down  on  the  same  ;  then  heriing- 
bone,  bridging  these  joists  in  as  many  rows  as  are  necessary  to 
make  a  thoroughly  stifE  brace  for  the  whole.  The  roof  (no  mat- 
ter whL^her  Gothic  or  Mansard)  can  not  exercise  any  bad  influ- 
ence in  pushing  out  the  walls,  when  this  system  is  adopted. 

Wood  To  season  and  prevent  warping.— Strip  off  bark,  and 
bury  about  one  foot  deep  in  the  spring,  leaving  in  the  ground  for 
six  months,  and  you  will  find  no  difficulty.  This  was  the  only 
wav  by  which  the  sapadillo  or  mountain  mahogany  in  the  Sierra 
NeVada  could  be  seasoned,  it  being  one  of  the  hardest  and  most 
brittle  kinds  of  wood  known. 

Windmill,  To  build  a. — Windmills  can  be  either  horizontal 
or  vertical,  but  the  latter  are  almost  exclusively  employed.  In 
the  vertical  windmill,  the  shaft  is  inclined  to  the  horizon  at  an 
an"-le  of  from  5'  to  15%  when  the  wheel  is  placed  at  the  top  of  a 
tower  ;  so  that  the  wheel  will  clear  the  sides  of  the  building, 
and  allow  space  for  the  action  of  the  wind.  If  the  wheel  is 
supported  by  a  post,  the  shaft  may  be  horizontal.  The  connec 
tion  of  the  "shaft  with  the  pump  or  other  mechanism  maybe 
made  either  with  gearing  or  by  means  of  a  crank  and  connecting 
rod.  The  shaft  must  be  free  to  swing  around  in  any  direction, 
BO  that  the  wheel  can  always  face  the  wind.  It  is  moved,  in  the 
case  of  small  windmills,  by  tlie  use  of  a  weather-van.:  on  tlie 
end  of  the  shaft  ojjposite  to  the  wheel.  With  large  windmills 
supported  on  towers,  the  top  of  the  tower  is  generally  arranged 
so  that  it  can  be  rotated,  and  a  small  auxiliary  wind-wheel,  con- 
nected by  gearing,  moves  it  into  the  proper  position  as  the  direc- 
tion of  the  wind  changes.  The  wheel  of  a  windmill  may  be 
covered  with  cloth,  or  with  slats  of  wood  or  metal,  the  cover  in 
either  case;  being  technically  known  as  the  sail. 

Make  the  sail  of  a  series  of  joined  slats,  that  present  a  close 
surface  to  wind  of  tlui  ordinary  velocity,  and  open,  thereby  de- 
creasing the  surface,  as  the  velocity  of  the  wind  increases.  The 
best  velocity  for  a  windmill  is  such  that  its  i)friphiry  moves 
about  2?  tinies  as  fast  as  the  wind.  Thus,  if  the  wind  is  moving 
at  the  rate  of  20  feet  a  second,  the  tips  of  tlie  sails  sliould  move 
at  the  rate  of  rti  fe<'t  a  second,  so  that,  if  the  wheel  were  13  feet 
in  diameter,  it  should  make  about  8:5  revolutions  a  minute.  Of 
course,  if  the  velocity  of  the  wind  varies  greatly,  it  will  be 
impossible  to  keej)  the  speed  constant,  so  that  windmills  are  not 
ordinarily  well  suited  for  work  nHpiiring  steady  motion  ;  altlmngh 
they  answer  very  well  for  nioviuij  jiumps,  if  an  intermittent 
supply  of  p(»wer  is  not  a  serious  obstach-.  in  some  sections, 
liowever,  tlic  i.revailing  winds  are  (|uit.-  steady,  and  in  such 
nisi'S  windmills  ran  Ix-  iipplifd  with  advantage  to  grist-mills 
and  f)th<'r  useful  work.  The  force  and  veicicity  of  tin-  wind  can 
only  be  determined  by  experiment,  but  the  results  of  previous 
experimenters  may  be  useful  : 


THE    FARM. 

201 

Velocity 

of  wind. 

Perpendicular 
force,  in  pounds 

In  feet  per 

In  miles 

Common    expressions    of 

second. 

per  hour. 

per  square  foot. 

the  force  of  the  wind. 

10 

6.82 

0.33 

Gentle  pleasant  wind. 

20 

13.64 

0.91 

Brisk  gale. 

30 

20.56 

2.04 

Very  brisk. 

40 

27.27 

3.92 

High  wind. 

50 

34.09 

6.25 

Very  liigli. 

60 

40.91 

9.25 

Very  high. 

70 

47.73 

12.75 

A  storm. 

80 

54.55 

16.34 

A  storm. 

90 

61.36 

20.74) 
25.28 1 

100 

68.18 

A  great  storm. 

110 

75.02 

30.89) 

120 

81.84 

36.75 

A  hurricane. 

130 

88.65 

43.26 

A  hurricane. 

140 

95.47 

50.32 

A  violent  hurricane. 

150 

102.29 

57.56 

A  violent  hurricane. 

In  the  accompanying  figure  is  shown  one  of  the  four  sails  of  a 
windmill,  it  having  been  found  that  four  sails  of  proper  propor- 
tion produce  the  best  effect.  The 
piece  P  B  is  called  the  whip  of  the 
sail  ;  C  D,  E  F,  G  H,  etc.,  the  bars 
of  the  sail.  The  bars  are  inclined 
to  the  plane  of  revolution  at  differ- 
ent angles,  the  angle  made  by  any 
part  of  the  sail  with  this  plane  be- 
ing called  the  weather  of  the  sail. 
Making  the  distances  A  O,  N  L,  L  I, 
etc., •each  equal  to  -^  of  the  diame- 
ter of  the  wheel,  the  best  values  for 
the  angle  of  weather  are  as  follows: 


For  N  0-18° 
For  L  M— 19° 
For  J  K— 18° 


For  G  H— 16° 
For  E  F— 12i° 
For  C  D— 7° 


The  sail  stretched  over  these  bars 
will  be  a  warped  surface,  some- 
what resembling  the  blade  of  a 
screw-propeller.  The  part  B  D  0, 
called  the  leading  sail,  is  triangular, 
and  B  D  is  T5  of  the  diameter  of  the 
wheel,  B  C  being  tV.  ^^^^  ^  ^'  "i^  o^ 
the  diameter.  The  main  body  of 
the  sail,  B  C  N  O,  is  commonly  rect- 
angular. A  windmill  of  the  best 
proportions,  running  under  the  most 
favorable  circumstances,  utilizes 
about  -fi^^  of  the  energy  of  the 
wind  that  acts  on  an  area  equal  to  a  circle  having  the  same 
diameter  as  the  wheel.  It  would  not  be  -advisable  to  count 
on  realizing  more  than  half  this  power  in  general  practice  ;  and 
on  this  assumption,  we  have  the  following  empirical  rule  for 


BtlTLDINO    A   WINUMELL. 


202  THE    FARM. 

determining  the  diameter  of  a  wheel  to  give  a  certain  amount 
of  power  with  an  assiuneJ  velocity  of  the  wind  : 

Divide  the  required  horse-power  by  the  cube  of  the  velocity 
of  the  wind  in  feet  per  second  ;  take  the  square  root  of  the 
quotient  and  multiply  it  by  the  number  2024.8.  The  product 
will  be  the  required  diameter  in  feet.  Example  :  A  windmill  is 
to  be  erected  in  a  locality  where  the  general  velocity  of  the  wind 
is  about  20  feet  per  second.  It  is  to  be  attached  to  a  pump,  the 
work  re()uired  of  it  being  to  raise  1000  gallons  of  water  per 
hour  through  a  height  of  20  feet  1000  United  States  gallons  of 
water  weigh  about  8320  pounds,  and,  taking  into  effect  the  re- 
sistance of  ihe  pump,  the  power  required  will  be  about  f,  of  a 
horse-power,  or  0.167  horse-power.  Dividing  this  by  8000,  the 
cube  of  tlie  velocity  of  the  wind,  extracting  the  square  root,  and 
multiplying  by  2024.8,  we  obtain  S)^  ft.  as  the  required  diameter  of 
the  wheel,  deferring  to  the  figure,  we  find  that,  in  this  case, 
C  N  is  3  feet  10|-  inches,  B  D,  7|  inches,  and  B  C,  ll;,^^  inches. 
The  velocity  of  the  tips  of  the  sales  should  be  52  feet  per  second, 
or  the  wheel  should  make  about  108  revolutions  a  minute. 


THE    DAIRY. 

Btttru,  Philadelphia. — The  pans  containing  milk  to  the 
depth  of  ;5  inches  are  set  in  flowing  water,  so  as  to  be  maintained 
at  a  temperature  of  about  58°  Fahr.  After  siaudmg  34  liours,  the 
milk  is  skimmed,  and  the  cream  ])ut  in  deep  vessels  of  a  capacity 
of  about  12  gallons.  It  is  kept  at  a  temperature  of  58'  to  59'  until 
it  ac(|uiri's  a  slightly  acid  taste,  wlien  it  goes  to  the  diurn.  The 
churn  is  a  barrel  rtivolving  on  a  journal  in  each  head,  and  is 
driven  by  horse-power.  The  churning  occupies  about  an  hour  ; 
atid  after  tlie  butti^rmilk  is  drawn  off,  cold  water  is  added  and  a 
few  turns  given  to  the  churn.  The  wiiter  is  then  drawn  off.  This 
is  rep(nited  until  the  water  as  it  is  drawn  otf  is  nearly  free  from 
milkiness.  TIk;  butter  is  worked  with  butter-workt^rs,  a  damp- 
ened cloth  mcianwliile  being  pressed  upon  it  to  absorb  the 
moisture  and  free  it  of  buttermilk.  Tlie  cloth  is  frequently 
di])ped  in  cold  water,  and  wrung  dry  during  the  jjrocess  of 
wi))ing  the  butler.  It  is  next  salted  at  the  rate  of  1  ounce  salt 
to  ;{  pounds  butter,  thoroughly  and  evenly  ineorp  )rated  by  means 
of  a  butter- worker.  It  is  then  removed  to  ;i  table,  where  it  is 
weighi'd  out  and  put  into  pound  prints.  After  this,  it  goes  into 
large  tin  trays,  and  is  set  in  the  water  to  harden,  remaining 
until  next  niorniiig,  when  it  is  wra|)j)ed  in  damp  cloths  ancl 
placed  upon  shi'lves,  oui-  abovtMinother,  iu  tin  lined  cedar  tubs, 
with  ice  in  the  compartments  at  the  ends;  and  thiui  it  go(^B 
immi'diately  to  market.  A  I'liiladelphia  Itutler  di^aler  says  that, 
for  tlm  l»eHt  butter, 'tlie  cows  ure  fi'd  on  wliite  clover  and  early 
mown  meadow  hay,  cut  fine;  and  mixed  in  with  corn  meal  and 
wiieaten  sliorts.     No  roots  are  fed,  except  carrots. 


THE    FARM.  203 

Chttrning  Milk,  Temperature  for. — 60°  Fahr. 

Cream-Gauge. — In  a  can  20  in.  deep  and  8  in.  in  diameter,  cut 
a  slot  a  few  inches  long.  In  this  slot,  insert  a  strip  of  glass,  in 
grooves,  and  cement  with  white  lead.  Graduate  the  tin  next  to 
the  glass.  Set  the  milk  in  the  can,  and  allow  the  cream  to  rise. 
The  percentage  may  be  seen  on  the  glass  and  noted  by  the 
scale. 

Cream,  White  specks  in. — These  are  caused  by  too  much  acid 
in  the  cream.  Cream  should  never  stand  in  a  room  where  the 
milk  is  set,  but  should  be  put  into  a  cool  place  if  you  would 
avoid  specks. 

Cows,  Care  of. — Milk  coming  from  ill-nourished,  half- fed  cows, 
having  no  surplus  of  food  beyond  minimum  requirements  of  na- 
ture, is  injurious,  and  may  be  a  source  of  disease.  Cows  deprived 
of  an  abundance  of  good  water,  ventilation,  and  exercise,  secrete 
impure  and  dangerous  milk,  which  may  be  loaded  with  gases, 
animalculse  and  fever-germs.  The  milk  from  old,  debilitated 
cows  fed  on  grains  or  overstimulating  food,  is  also  imperfect  and 
unhealthy  to  a  variable  degree.  The  nervous  condition  of  thb 
cow  at  the  time  of  milking  determines  the  purity  of  the  milk. 
If  this  is  neglected,  the  milk  is  an  active  source  of  disease,  and 
is  positively  dangerous  and  fatal. 

Cow-Stables,  Ventilation  of. — Lay  the  floor  of  the  stable  upon 
a  solid  bed  of  earth  and  yravel,  with  a  fall  of  6  in.  in  13  ft.  from 
the  stanchions,  with  the  same  ratio  of  descent,  to  a  point  for  outlet 
of  liquids.  Make  a  platform  raised  6  in.  for  the  cows  to  stand  or 
lie  upon.  The  floor  and  platform  plank  should  be  bedded  in 
water-lime  mortar,  so  that  there  shall  be  no  soaking  down  nor 
hiding-place  for  stale  urine  to  deposit  and  generate  venomous 
odors. 

Milk,  Poisonous  sour. — Sour  milk,  after  protracted  exposure 
to  the  sun,  develops  a  poisonous  quality,  sufficient  to  cause  dis- 
ease and  death  to  pigs  fed  thereon. 

Milk,  Setting. — Place  the  pans  in  cold  water,  which  will  pro- 
tect the  milk  from  the  acid  until  the  cream  has  time  to  rise. 
For  cream  to  rise  readily  on  milk,  set  in  cold  water ;  the  atmo- 
•  sphere  in  the  room  should  be  warmer  than  the  water.  There 
will  as  much  cream  rise  on  milk  set  in  cold  water  in  one  hour 
as  there  will  on  milk  not  set  in  water  in  24  hours. 

Milk,  Tainted. — Never  allow  dead  animals  to  decay  about  a 
pasture,  or  any  where  near  a  barn  or  other  localities  inhabited 
by  the  milch-cows.     The  carrion  odor  is  sure  to  affect  the  milk. 

Milk,  Testing  for  cream. — A  simple  method  of  determining 
the  quantity  of  cream  in  any  sample  of  milk  consists  in  agitating 
the  milk  ina  graduated  glass  tube  with  its  bulk  of  ether  for  4 
or  5  minutes.  Add  alcohol  in  volume  equal  to  that  of  the  milk, 
and  shake  for  5  minutes.  Place  the  tube  vertically  and  allow  it 
to  rest  lor  a  brief  period,  when  the  oily  matter  will  rise  to  the 
surface  so  that  its  amount  may  be  read  off  on  the  scale  and  the 
percentage  easily  computed. 

Milk,  To   insure  good. — The  following  questions  Mr.   X.  A. 


204  THE    FARM. 

Willard,  a  well-known  dairy  authority,  recommends  to  be  writ- 
ten out  and  posted  about  the  dairy  :  "  Do  your  cows  feed  in 
8wam}3s  and  on  boggy  lands '?  Have  you  good,  sweet  running 
water  convenient  for  stock,  and  is  it  abundant  and  permanent  in 
hot,  dry  weather?  Have  you  shade-trees  in  your  pasture,  or 
do  you  think  that  cows  make  better  milk  while  lying  down  to 
rest  in  discomfort  in  the  hoi  sun?  Do  you  use  dogs  and  stones 
to  hurry  the  cows  from  pasture  at  milking  time,  thus  overheat- 
ing their  blood  and  bruising  their  udders  ?  Do  you  cleanse  the 
udders  of  cows  before  milking  by  washing  their  teats  with  their 
own  milk,  and  practice  further  economy  by  allowing  their  drip- 
pings to  go  into  the  milk-pail  ?  Do  you  enjoin  your  milkers  to 
wash  their  hands  thoroughly  before  silting  down  to  milk  ?  When 
a  cow  makes  a  misstej)  while  being  milked,  do  you  allow  your 
milkers  to  kick  her  with  heavy  boots,  or  to  pound  her  over  the 
back  and  sides  with  a  heavy  stool  ?  Is  the  air  about  your  '  milk- 
barn'  or  milk-house  reeking  with  the  foul  emanations  of  the 
pig-sty,  the  manure-heap,  or  other  pestiferous  odors  ?" 

Milk,  To  prevent  souring  by  tluinder-storms. — A  fire  started 
in  the  dairy  is  an  excellent  preventive.  This  should  be  done 
even  in  the  hottest  weather.  The  object  is  to  remove  the  damp, 
moist,  heavy  air,  which  is  injurious  to  the  milk. 

Milk,  To  remove  taste  of  turni])S  in. — Give  the  cow  no  turnips 
for  two  or  three  hours  before  milking.  It  is  better  to  feed  only 
the  centre  of  the  turnip,  cutting  ofE  the  top  and  bottom.  A 
tablespoonfiil  of  nitn^  dissolved  in  as  much  water  as  it  will  take 
to  a  gallon  of  milk,  placed  in  the  pail  before  milking,  is  said  to 
remove  the  taste  of  the  vegetable. 


FARM   ITTNTS   AND   RECIPES, 

Bee  Moths,  To  kill. — Bee  moths  can  easily  be  killed  in  large 
numbers  l)y  setting  a  pan  of  grease,  in  which  is  a  floating  ignited 
wick,n(^arth(!  hives  after  dark.  The  moths  will  fly  into  the  light 
and  fall  into  the  grease. 

Bones,  Reducing.  — Place  them  in  a  larg(!  kettle  tilled  with 
ashes,  and  about  one  peck  of  lime  to  a  barrel  of  bones.  Cover 
with  water  and  Imii.  In  24  hours  all  the  hones,  with  the  excep- 
tion, perhHi)S,  of  the  hard  shinlxmes,  will  heconie  so  much  soft 
encd  as  to  i)e  easily  ])uiveri'/ed  by  hand.  They  will  not  be  in 
particles  of  bone,  but  in  a  pasty  condition,  and  in  an  excellent 
form  to  mix  with  muck,  loam,  or  ashi-s.  Hy  boiling  the  shin- 
hones  10  or  12  liours  longer,  they  will  also  become  soft. 

Hones.    Value  of.  as  a   (ertili/,<T.— 100    Ihs.    of    dry    bone-dust 

add   to  the  soil   as   i h  organic  animal    matter   as  ;!00   lbs.   of 

Mood  or  flesh,  and  al.soai  the  same  time  •  their  weight  of  inorganic 
matter-  lime,  magnc'^ia,  common  salt,  soda,  and  i)hos|>lioric  acid. 
Superphosphate  of   lime,  commonly    nr^ed    liy    farmers,  is   simply 


THE    FARM.  205 

bones  treated  witli  ^  their  weight  sulphuric  acid  and  an  equal 
quantity  of  water. 

Carbonic  Acid  Gas,  Removing  from  wells,  cisterns,  etc. — (1.) 
A  bellows  with  a  rubber  hose  reaching  near  the  bottom  will  soon 
blow  out  the  gas.  (2  )  Let  down  a  large  bucket,  draw  up  and 
empty  tlie  gas  as  if  it  were  water.  (3.)  Pour  down  water  ;  do  this 
when  a  person  falls  to  the  bottom  from  inhaling  the  gas.  (4.) 
Let  down  an  umbrella  spread,  and  pull  up  quickly  several  times 
in  succession. 

Caterpillars,  Exterminating. — Orchard  or  tent  caterpillars 
leave  their  rings  of  eggs  on  the  young  twigs.  If  these  are  cut  off 
with  a  clipping  pole,  it  will  prevent  in  every  instance  a  large 
nest  of  caterpillars,  and  be  much  more  easily  done  than  after  the 
latter  have  grown. 

Caterpillars,  Remedy  for. — A  solution  (1  part  in  500)  of  sul- 
phide of  potassium,  sprinkled  on  the  tree  by  means  of  a  hand-sy- 
ringe, is  extensively  used  in  France. 

Celery,  Propagation  of.  —A  deep  trench  should  first  be  dug, 
at  the  bottom  of  which  a  layer  of  sticks  of  wood,  say  6  in.  thick, 
should  be  placed  a  drain-pipe  being  placed  endwise  upon  one  or 
both  ends  of  the  Jayer.  The  sticks  should  be  then  covered  with 
about  a  foot  of  ricli  mouxd,  wherein  the  plants  should  be  set  in  a 
row,  and  about  5  in.  apart.  The  plants  should  be  well  watered, 
the  water  being  supplied  through  the  drain-pipes,  so  that,  pass- 
ing through  the  layer  of  sticks,  which  serves  as  a  conduit,  the  wa- 
ter is  supplied  to  the  roots  of  the  plants.  In  earthing  up,  care 
should  be  exercised  to  close  the  stems  of  the  plant  well  together 
with  the  hand,  so  that  no  mould  can  get  between  them.  The 
earthing  process  should  be  performed  sufficiently  frequently  to 
keep  the  mould  nearly  level  with  the  leaves  of  the  outside  stems. 
If  these  directions  are  carefully  observed,  the  plant  may  be  grown 
at  least  4  ft.  in  length,  and  this  without  impairing  the  flavor. 

Charcoal,  Effect  of,  on  flowers. — All  red  flowers  are 
greatly  benefited  by  covering  the  earth  in  their  pots  with  about 
an  inch  of  pulverized  charcoal.  The  colors  (both  i-ed  and  violet) 
are  rendered  extremely  brilliant.  Yellow  flowers  are  not  affected 
in  any  way  by  charcoal. 

Chickens,  To  fatten. — The  best  food  for  this  purpose  is  Indian 
meal  and  milk. 

Chinch-Bugs,  To  destroy. — Put  old  pieces  of  rag  or  carpet  in 
the  crotches  of  the  trees  attacked.  When  the  worms  spin,  as  they 
will,  in  the  rags,  throw  the  latter  in  scalding  water.  The  bugs 
can  thus  be  killed  by  wholesale. 

Cider  Barrels,  To  clean. — Pour  in  lime-water,  and  then  in- 
sert a  trace-chain  through  the  bung-hole,  remembering  to  fasten 
a  strong  cord  on  the  chain  so  as  to  pull  it  out  again.  Shake 
the  barrel  until  all  the  mould  inside  is  rubbed  off.  Rinse  with  wa- 
ter, and  finally  pour  in  a  little  whisky. 

Cider  Casks,  To  prepare.— Cider  should  never  be  put  into  new 
casks  without  previously  scalding  them  with  water  containing 
salt,  or  with  water  in  which  apple-pomace  has  been  boiled.     Beer- 


206  THE    FARM. 


casks  slioiild  never  be  used  for  cider,  nor  cider-casks  for  beer. 
Wine  and  brandy  casks  will  keep  cider  well,  if  the  tartar  adher- 
ing to  their  sides  is  first  carefully  scraped  oft  and  the  casks  be 
well  scalded.  Burning  a  little  sulphur  in  a  cask  will  effectually 
remove  must. 

Cider  from  apple-parings. — The  parings  of  a  bushel  of  apples 
will  yield  1  qt.  of  cider  by  the  aid  of  the  hand-press. 

Cider-Making,  Hints  for. — 1.  No- good  cider  can  be  made  from 
unripe  fruit.  The  nearer  to  perfect  ripeness  the  apples,  the  bet- 
ter the  cider.  2.  No  rotten  apples,  nor  bitter  leaves,  nor  stems, 
nor  filth  of  any  kind  should  be  ground  for  cider.  3.  Two  presses 
are  really  necessary  for  each  mill,  so  that  the  pomace  can  be  ex- 
posed to  the  air  in  the  one,  while  it  is  being  pressed  in  the  other, 
and  thus  acquire  a  deeper  color.  4.  New  oak  barrels,  or  those  in 
which  whisky  or  alcohol  has  been  kept,  are  the  best.  5.  If  more 
color  and  richer  body  are  desired,  a  quart  or  two  of  boiled  cider 
to  each  barrel  will  impart  them. 

CiDEK,  Purifying. — Cider  may  be  purified  by  isinglass,  about 
1  oz.  of  the  latter  to  the  gallon.  Dissolve  in  warm  water,  stir 
gently  into  the  cider,  let  it  settle,  and  draw  off  the  liquor. 

Cider,  To  preserve  sweet  for  years. — Put  it  up  in  air-tight  cans, 
after  the  manner  of  fruit.  Rack  it  off  the  dregs,  and  can  before 
fermentation  sets  in. 

Coal- Ashes  as  a  fertilizer. — Mix  them  with  a  small  propor- 
tion of  well-rotted  horse-manure,  sifting  the  ashes  first,  and  you 
will  have  an  excellent  fertilizer. 

CoRN-CoBS,  Utilization  of. — Save  the  corn-cobs  for  kindlings,  es- 
pecially if  wood  is  not  going  to  be  plentiful  next  winter.  To  pre- 
pare them,  melt  togetlier  6U  parts  resin  and  40  parts  tar.  Dip  in 
the  cobs,  and  dry  on  sheet-metal  heated  to  about  the  temperature 
of  boiling  water. 

Doos,  Bed  for. — The  best  is  newly  made  deal  shavings.  They 
will  clean  the  dog  as  well  as  water,  and  will  drive  away  fleas. 

Dust,  Road,  Value  of. — During  a  dry  season,  every  country 
resident  should  secure  several  barrels  of  road-dust.  Tliose  who 
keep  poultry  may  secure  by  its  use  a  valuable  fertilizer,  nearly  as 
strong  as  guano,  with  none  of  its  disagreeable  odor.  Place  an 
inch  or  two  of  roiul-dust  in  tlu!  bottom  of  a  barrel;  tiuMi,  as  the 
poultry  liousc  is  ri'giilarly  cleaned,  deposit  a  layer  an  inch  thick 
of  the  cleanings,  and  so  on,  alternately  layers  of  each  till  the  bar- 
rel is  full.  The  thinner  each  layer  is,  the  more  perfect  will  be 
the  intermixture  of  the  ingredients.  If  the  soil  of  which  the 
road-dust  is  made  is  clayey,  tlu^  layers  of  eacli  may  be  of  equal 
thickuf^SH  ;  if  sandy,  th(!  dust  slioiiM  be  at  least  twice  as  tliick  as 
tli(!  layer  of  drop|)ings.  Old  Ijarnds  of  any  kind  may  be  used  for 
this  |)nrpose,  but  if  previously  soaked  witli  crude;  petroleum  or 
coated  with  gas-tar,  tlu^y  will  last  many  years.  If  the  contents 
are  |K)iin(ied  on  a  floor  into  fine  powder  befont  applying,  the;  fer- 
tilizer may  be  sown  from  a  drill.  Ifoad-diist  is  one  of  the  most, 
perfect  deodorizers  of  vaults — converting  their  contents  also  into 
rich   manure.      I'lace  a   l)arrel   or  b«>x  of  it  in  the  closet,  with  a 


THE    FARM.  207 

small  dipper,  and  throw  down  a  pint  into  the  vault  each  time  it 
is  occupied,  and  there  will  be  no  offensive  odor  whatever.  This 
is  simpler,  cheaper,  and  better  than  a  water-closet,  and  never 
freezes  or  gets  out  of  order.  Mixing  the  road-dust  with  equal 
bulk  of  coal-ashes  is  an  improvement,  making  the  fertilizer  more 
friable. 

Fertilizer,  A  cheap. — This  consists  of  sulphate  of  ammonia, 
60  lbs.  ;  nitrate  of  soda,  40  lbs.  ;  ground  bone,  250  lbs.  ;  plaster, 
250  lbs.  ;  salt,  ^  bushel ;  wood  ashes,  3  bushels  ;  stable  manure, 
20  bushels.  Apply  the  above  amount  to  six  acres.  Labor  in  pre- 
paring included,  it  costs  about  $15.  It  is  said  to  give  as  good 
results  as  most  of  the  commercial  fertilizers  costing  $50  per  ton. 

Fish-Net,  To  preserve  from  decay. — Steep  in  melted  paraffine. 

Fowls,  Fattening. — It  is  said  that  charcoal  will  fatten  fowls, 
and  at  the  same  time  give  the  meat  improved  tenderness  and 
flavor.  Pulverize  and  mix  with  the  food.  A  turkey  requires 
about  a  gill  a  day. 

Fruit,  To  preserve. — Fruit  is  kept  in  Russia  by  beincp  packed 
in  creosotized  lime.  Tlie  lime  is  slaked  in  water  in  which  a  little 
creosote  has  been  dissolved,  and  is  allowed  to  fall  to  powder. 
The  latter  is  spread  over  the  bottom  of  a  deal  box,  to  about  one 
inch  in  thickness.  A  sheet  of  paper  is  laid  above,  and  then  the 
fruit.  Over  the  fruit  is  another  sheet  of  paper,  then  more  lime, 
and  so  on,  until  the  box  is  full,  when  a  little  finely  powdered 
charcoal  is  packed  in  the  corners,  and  the  lid  tightly  closed. 
Fruit  thus  inclosed  will,  it  is  said,  remain  good  for  a  year. 

Fallen  Leaves,  To  utilize. — These  should  be  carefully  gath- 
ered, as  they  are  excellent  to  mix  with  hot-bed  material.  They 
do  not  heat  so  rapidly  as  stable-manure,  and  in  this  have  an  ad- 
vantage, as  tempering  the  violence  makes  manure  last  longer 
and  maintain  a  more  regular  heat.  They  are  excellent  material 
to  put  round  cold  frames  to  protect  half-hardy  plants.  A  board 
is  put  up  to  the  height  of  the  frame  boards,  and  about  a  foot  or 
more  from  them,  and  the  leaves  filled  in  between.  If  the  plants 
are  somewhat  tender,  the  bottom  of  the  frajnes  may  be  filled  in  a 
few  feet  with  the  leaves.  Fallen  leaves,  after  having  been  two 
or  three  years  decaying,  make  admirable  stuff  for  potting  plants 
and  for  flowers  in  general. 

Grafts,  Cutting  and  storing. — There  is  no  better  time  to  cut 
grafts,  than  at  the  commencement  of  winter.  lu  cutting  and 
packing  them  away,  let  them  be  labeled.  For  this  purpose  they 
should  be  tied  up  in  bunches,  not  over  2  or  3  inches  in  diameter, 
with  3  bands  around  each  bunch — at  the  ends  and  middle.  The 
names  may  be  written  on  a  strip  of  pine-board  or  lath,  ^  in. 
wide,  j-ij  in.  thick,  and  nearly  as  long  as  the  scions.  This,  if 
tied  up  with  the  bunch,  will  keep  the  same  secure.  For  conveni- 
ence in  quickly  determining  the  name,  there  should  be  another 
strip  of  lath,  sharp  at  one  end,  and  with  the  name  distinctly 
written  on  the  other,  thrnst  into  the  bundle  with  the  name  pro- 
jecting from  it.  If  these  bunches  or  bundles  are  now  placed  on 
end  in  a  box,  with  plenty  of  damp  pioss  between  them  and  over 
the  top,  they  will  keep  in  a  cellar  in  good  condition,  and  anvsort 


208  THE    FARM 

may  be  selected,  and  withdrawn  without  disturbing  the  rest,  by 
reading  the  projecting  label.  It  is  needful,  however,  to  keep  an 
occasional  eye  to  them,  to  see  that  the  proper  degree  of  moisture 
is  maintained — which  should  be  just  enough  to  keep  them  from 
shriveling,  and  no  more. 

Gkapes,  To  ripen. — In  the  Rhine  district,  grape-vines  are  kept 
low  and  as  near  the  soil  as  possible,  so  that  the  heat  of  the  sun 
may  be  reflected  back  upon  them  from  the  ground  ;  and  the 
ripening  is  thus  carried  on  through  the  night  by  the  heat  radiated 
from  the  earth. 

Gr.vsshoppers,  To  utilize. — The  grasshoppers,  desiccated  and 
ground,  are  useful  as  a  fertilizer  ;  but  in  this  prepared  condition, 
they  form  an  excellent  food  for  all  insect-feeding  birds.  There  is 
no  better  food  for  all  young  domestic  fowls.  Containing  silicic 
acid  in  a  soluble  state,  they  seem  specially  adapted  for  young 
birds,  promoting  the  growth  of  feathers. 

fxRASsiNf;  A  Sr-OPE. — A  steep*  slope  may  be  grassed  over  with- 
out sodding  by  first  smoothing  the  surface  and  then  mixing  a 
tough  paste  or  mortar  of  clay,  loam,  and  horse-manure,  with  suffi- 
cient water.  The  grass  seed,  which  should  be  a  mixture  of  Ken- 
tucky blue  grass  and  white  clover,  should  be  thickly  but  evenly 
scattered  upon  the  moist  surface  of  this  plaster  as  it  is  spread 
upon  the  bank.  Tiie  plaster  should  be  at  least  one  or  two  inches 
thick,  and  a  thin  layer  should  be  laid  over  the  seed.  The  surface 
should  be  k(;pt  moist,  and  a  light  dressing  of  some  active  ferti- 
lizer would  help  the  growth.  In  a  few  weeks  the  growing  grass 
should  be  cut,  and  should  be  kept  short  at  ail  times  until  a  tliick 
sod  is  formed. 

(jiliAN'O,  Handling. — Many  cases  of  iioisoiiiug  hiive  occurred  by 
contact  of  guano  with  wounds.  It  should  be  handled  with  gloved 
hands. 

Gr.wo,  Home-made. — Make  a  compound  of  1  bushel  ashes,  2 
l)U8he8  fowl-tnanure,  1^-  bushels  jjlastcr,  and  4  bushels  muck. 
Spread  the  muck  on  the  barn-Hoor  and  dump  tlie  fowl-manure  on 
top  of  it.  Pulverize  the  latter  with  the  spade,  and  mix  in  the 
otlicr  ingredients.  Moisten  the  heap  with  water,  or,  better,  with 
urine,  l)ffore  planting.  Deposit  alxtut  a  handful  in  each  hill  of 
corn,  potatoi's,  or  beans,  mixing  it  with  tin;  soil  before  putting  in 
the  seed. 

IIakness,  Cleaning. — Unbuckle  all  the  i)arts  and  wash  clean 
with  soft  water,  .soap,  and  a  brush.  A  little  tur])entine  or  benzine 
will  take  off  imy  gummy  substance  which  the  soaj)  fails  to  re- 
move 'I'heu  warm  tiie  leather,  and,  as  soon  as  dry  on  the  sur- 
face, apply  the  oil  with  a  paint-brush  or  a  swab.  Neat's-foot  oil 
is  the  bi;8t..  Hang  up  thi!  harness  in  a  wiirm  place  to  dry,  but  do 
not  let  it  burn. 

H  MfNK-^-;,  Oiliu!,''. — (live  on«  .)r  two  coats  of  lampblack  and 
castor-oil  warmed  sulIiciiMitly  to  make  it  peiietiate  the  stock 
rea<lily.  Then  spongc!  the  harnesH  with  2  (jts.  warm  soap-suds  ; 
when  dry,  rub  over  a  mixture  of  oil  and  tallow,  e(|ual  parts,  with 
enough  Prussian  blue  to  give  color.  When  well  rubbed  in,  this 
coiMpoiiiid  leuves  a  smooth,  (dean  surface. 


THE    FARM.  209 

Harness,  Working-  team. — Do  not  use  martingales  on  working 
teams.  See  that  the  hames  are  buckled  tight  enough  at  the  top 
t(;  bring  the  draft-iron  near  the  centre  of  the  collar.  If  too  low, 
it  not  only  interferes  witli  the  action  of  the  shoulder,  but  giTes 
the  collar  an  uneven  bearing. 

Hay,  Spontaneous  combustion  of. — Hay,  when  piled  damp  and 
in  too  large  masses,  ferments  and  turns  dark.  In  decomposing, 
sufficient  heat  is  developed  to  be  insupjjortable  when  the  hand  is 
thrust  into  the  mass,  and  vapors  begin  to  be  emitted.  When  the 
water  is  almost  entirely  evaporated,  the  decomposition  continues, 
and  the  hay  becomes  carbonized  little  by  little  ;  and  then  the 
charred  portion,  like  peat — peat-cinders  mixed  with  charcoal,  sul- 
phurous pyrites  and  lignite,  etc. — becomes  a  kind  of  pyrophorus, 
by  virtue  of  its  great  porosity  and  of  the  large  quantity  of  mat- 
ter exposed  to  high  oxidation.  Under  the  influence  of  air  in 
large  amount,  this  charcoal  becomes  concentrated  on  the  surface 
to  such  a  degree  that  the  mass  reaches  a  temperature  which  re- 
sults in  its  bursting  into  flames.  The  preventives  for  this  danger 
are  care  that  the  hay  in  the  lofts  is  kept  perfectly  dry,  that  it  is 
well  stacked,  and  that  it  is  stored  in  small  heaps  rather  than  in 
large  masses. 

Hay,  To  estimate  the  weight  of. — Allow  1  cwt.  of  hay  to  the 
cubic  yard. 

Horse,  Power  of. — The  greatest  amount  an  average  horse  can 
pull  in  a  horizontal  line  will  raise  a  weight  of  900  lbs. ;  but  he 
can  only  do  this  momentarily  ;  in  continued  exertion,  probably 
half  this  amount  is  the  limit. 

Horses,  Bedding  for. — Sawdust  serves  this  purpose  well. 

Horses,  Buying,  Hints  for. — Examine  the  eyes  in  the  stable, 
then  in  the  light  ;  if  they  are  in  any  degree  defective,  reject.  Exa- 
mine the  teeth  to  determine  the  age.  Examine  the  poll  or  crown  of 
the  head,  and  the  witliers,  or  top  of  the  shoulders,  as  the  former 
is  the  seat  of  poll  evil,  and  the  latter  that  of  fistula.  Examine 
the  front  feet ;  and  if  the  frog  has  fallen,  or  settled  down  be- 
tween the  heels  of  the  shoes,  and  the  heels  are  contracted,  reject 
him,  as  he,  if  not  already  lame,  is  liable  to  become  so  at  any 
moment.  Next  observe  the  knees  and  ankles  of  the  horse  you 
desire  to  purchase,  and,  if  cocked,  you  may  be  sure  that  it  is  the 
result  of  the  displacement  of  the  internal  organs  of'  the  foot,  a 
consequence  of  neglect  of  the  form  of  the  foot,  and  injudicious 
shoeing.  Exauine  for  interfering,  from  the  ankle  to  the  knees, 
and  if  it  proves  that  he  cuts  the  knee,  or  the  leg  between  the  knee 
and  the  ankle,  or  the  latter  badly,  reject.  "  Speedy  cuts"  of  the 
knee  and  leg  are  most  serious  in  their  effects.  5lany  trotting 
horses,  which  would  be  of  great  value  were  it  not  for  this  single 
defect,  are  by  it  rendered  valueless.  (.'arefuUy  examine  the  hoofs 
for  cracks,  as  jockeys  have  acquired  great  skill  in  concealing 
cracks  in  the  hoofs.  If  cracks  are  observable  in  any  degree,  re- 
ject. Also  both  look  and  feel  for  ringbones,  which  are  callosities 
on  the  bones  of  the  pastern  near  the  foot  ;  if  apparent,  reject. 
Examine  the  hind  feet  for  the  same  defects  of  the  foot  and 
ankle  that  we  have  named  in  connection  with  the  front  feet. 
Then  proceed  to  the  hock,  which  is  the  seat  of  curb,  and  both 


210  THE    FAKM. 

bone  and  blood  spavins.  The  former  is  ft  bony  enlargement  of 
tlie  posterior  and  lower  poi'tion  of  the  hock-joint  ;  the  second  a 
bony  excrescence  on  the  lower,  inner,  and  ratlu-r  anterior  portion 
of  the  hock  ;  and  the  last  is  a  soft  enlargement  of  the  synovial 
membrane  on  the  inner  and  upper  portion  of  the  hock.  They  are 
either  of  them  sufficient  reason  for  rejecting.  See  that  the  horse 
stands  with  the  front  feet  well  under  him,  and  observe  both  the 
heels  of  the  ft-et  and  shoes  to  see  if  he  "  forges"  or  overreaches  ; 
and  in  case  he  does,  and  the  toes  of  the  front  feet  are  low.  the 
heels  high,  and  the  heels  of  the  front  shoes  a  good  thickness, 
and  the  toes  of  the  hind  feet  are  of  no  proper  length,  reject  him  ; 
for  if  he  .still  overreaches  with  his  feet  in  the  condition  described, 
lie  is  incurable.  If  he  props  out  both  front  feet,  or  points  them 
alternately,  reject.  In  testing  the  driving  qualities,  take  the  reins 
while  on  the  ground,  invite  the  owner  to  get  in  the  vehicle  first, 
then  drive  yourself.  Avoid  the  display  or  the  use  of  the  whip  ; 
and  if  he  has  not  sufficient  spirit  to  exhibit  his  best  speed  without 
it,  reject.  Should  he  drive  satisfactorily  without,  it  will  then 
be  proper  to  test  his  amiability  and  the  extent  of  his  training  in 
the  use  of  the  whip.  Thoroughly  te.st  his  walking  qualities  first, 
as  that  gait  is  more  important  in  the  horse  of  all  work  than  great 
trotting  speed.  The  value  of  ahorse,  safe  for  all  purposes  with- 
out blinds,  is  greatly  enhanced  thereby.  Purchase  of  the  breeder 
of  the  horse  if  practicable  ;  the  reasons  are  obvious. 

Houses,  Common-sense  treatment  for. — (1)  All  horses  must 
not  be  fed  in  the  same  proportions,  without  due  regard  to  their 
ages,  constitutions,  and  work.  (3)  Never  use  bad  hay  because  it  is 
ch(!ap  ;  there  is  no  nourishment  in  it.  (3)  Damaged  corn  brings 
on  inflannnation  of  the  bowels  and  skin  diseases.  (4)  Cliaii'is 
better  for  old  horses  than  hay,  because  they  can  chew  and  digest 
it  better.  (5)  Mix  chaft"  with  corn  or  beans.  (U)  There  is  not 
sutlicient  nutritive  body  in  either  hay  or  grass  alone  to  support  a 
horse  under  hard  work  ;  in  such  case  the  food  should  chiefly  be 
oats.  (7)  For  a  .saddle  or  a  coach  horse,  half  a  jieck  of  sound 
oats  and  18  lbs.  of  good  hay  is  sufficient  ;  if  tlie  hay  is  not  good, 
add  a  (juarter  of  a  peck  more  oats.  (8)  Hack  feeding  is  wasteful  ; 
feed  with  chopped  hay  from  a  nuinger.  (9)  Sprinkle  the  hay 
with  water  that  has  salt  dissolved  in  it,  becau.se  it  is  jtleasing  to 
tlie  aiiiinai's  taste  and  more  easily  digested.  A  teaspooiiful  of 
salt  in  a  l)ucket  of  water  is  sutlicient.  (lO)  Oats  should  be 
bruised  for  an  old  horse,  but  not  for  a  young  one.  (11)  Cut  grass 
should  always  be  given  in  sjjring  to  horses  that  can  not  be  turned 
out  into  the  fields  ;  it  is  very  cool  and  refreshing.  (12)  Water 
horses  from  a  pond  or  stream,  rather  tiian  from  a  si)ring  or  well, 
because'  tlie  water  from  the  latter  is  generally  hard  and  <'o]d,  while 
the  former  is  soft  and  comparatively  warm.  'I'lui  liorse  prefers 
soft  muddy  water  to  liard  water,  though  never  so  dear.  (13)  A 
lior.'if!  should  liave  at  least  a  pailful  of  water  morning  and  even- 
ing, or  (still  better)  four  lialf  pailfuls  at  four  several  times  in 
the  day.  because  this  assuages  his  thirst  without  bloiiting  him. 
He  sbould  not  be  made  to  work  directly  after  a  full  draft  of 
water.  (M)  ]>o  not  allow  a  liorse  to  have  warm  water  to  drink, 
since,  if  he  lias  to  drink  cold  water  after  becoming  accustomed  to 


THE    FARM.  211 

warm,  it  will  give  him  colic.     (15)  Do  not  work  a  horse  when 
he  refuses  food  after  drinking  ;  he  is  thoroughly  fagged  out. 

Horses,  Dead,  To  utilize. — Drag  the  body  to  some  out-of-the- 
way  part  of  the  farm  and  sprinkle  quicklime  over  it.  Then  cover 
with  about  twenty-five  wagon-loads  of  muck  or  sods.  In  a  year 
an  excellent  manure-heap  will  be  at  your  disposal.  Smaller  ani- 
mals may  be  similarly  utilized. 

Horses,  Scratches  on. — These  may  be  cured  by  washing  the 
legs  in  warm,  strong  soap-suds,  and  then  in  beef  brine. 

Horses,  To  keep  flies  from. — Make  an  infusion  of  3  hand- 
fuls  of  walnut  leaves  in  3  qts.  of  cold  water.  Let  this  stand 
over  night  and  boil  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour  in  the  morning. 
When  cold,  rub  it  over  the  ears,  neck,  and  other  irritable  parts 
of  the  animal,  with  a  moist  sponge. 

Horses,  Wounds  on. — If  suppuration  is  inevitable,  use  car- 
bolic acid  combined  with  glycerine  or  linseed-oil  in  the  propor- 
tion of  1  to  20.  It  may  be  applied  night  and  morning  with  a 
feather.  The  wound  must  be  kept  clean,  and,  in  the  case  of 
backs  and  shoulders,  all  pressure  removed  by  small  pads  of 
curled  horse-hair,  sewed  on  the  harness  above  and  below  the  sore. 

Ice,  Compressed. — Thin  ice  from  ponds,  or  small  pieces  left 
after  cutting  blocks  from  larger  bodies  of  water,  may  be  stored 
in  a  profitable  manner,  and  at  the  same  time  its  preservation  in- 
sured, by  compressing  it  into  solid  blocks  by  means  of  any  simple 
press.  In  localities  where  ice  is  not  attainable,  snow  might 
easily  be  treated  in  the  same  way. 

Ice,  To  keep. — Select  a  shady  spot,  on  the  north  side,  if  possible, 
of  a  clump  of  trees.  Throw  up  a  circular  mound,  some  12  in.  in 
height  and  at  least  15  ft.  in  diameter,  flattening  the  summit  care- 
fully, and  leaving  a  trench  around  the  eminence,  2  ft.  in  width 
and  18  in.  in  depth.  In  gathering  the  ice,  there  is  no  necessity  of 
cutting  into  uniform  shape  or  of  seeking  large  pieces.  Fill  up 
the  carts  with  any  kind  of  fragments,  transport  them  to  the 
mound,  and  dump  them  on  a  platform  made  of  a  few  planks. 
Ram  the  surface  of  the  mound  hard  and  firm,  cover  with  sawdust, 
and  then  place  the  first  layer  of  ice,  which  should  previously  be 
cracked  into  small  pieces,  for  which  purpose  the  men  should  be 
provided  with  wooden  mallets.  As  each  layer  is  put  on  the  stack, 
the  ice  should  be  thoroughly  pounded,  both  above  and  at  the  sides, 
so  as  to  form  a  huge  block  of  ice,  the  shape  of  which  will  be 
slightly  conical. 

When  the  stack  is  completed,  it  will  require  two  coverings  of 
straw,  one  lying  upon  the  ice  and  the  other  supported  on  a  wooden 
framework  about  18  in.  outside  the  first  covering. 

The  layer  of  straw  next  the  ice  must  be  well  beaten  and  flat- 
tened down  upon  it,  and  when  this  is  done,  be  12  in.  in  thickness. 
The  framework,  upon  which  a  similar  thickness  of  straw  is  placed, 
may  be  formed  by  inserting  stout  larch  or  other  poles  of  a  suitable 
length  round  the  base  in  a  slanting  direction,  so  that  they  can  be 
readily  brought  together  at  the  top,  and  securely  fastened  with 
stout  cord.  From  six  to  eight  of  these  will,  when  joined  together 
by  means  of  strips  of  wood  fixed  about  13  in.  apart,  aflEord  ample 


212  THE    FARM. 


support  for  tlie  second  covering  of  the  straw.  Tliis  must  be  put 
on  nicelj,  so  as  to  prevent  the  possibility  of  the  rain's  penetrating 
to  the  inner  covering.  By  this  arrangement  there  will  be  a  body 
of  air,  which  is  one  of  the  most  effectual  non-conductors  known, 
between  the  two  coverings  of  straw.  To  effect  a  change  of  the 
inclosed  air,  when  rendered  needful  by  its  becoming  charged  with 
the  moisture  arising  from  the  melted  ice,  a  piece  of  iron  or  earth- 
enware piping  a  few  inches  in  diameter  should  be  fixed  near  the 
apex,  one  end  being  just  above  the  straw,  and  the  other  end 
reaching  into  the  inclosed  space.  The  pipe  can  be  readily  opened 
or  stopped  up,  as  may  appear  necessary,  but  as  a  rule  it  will  suf- 
fice to  open  the  pipe  once  a  week,  and  allow  it  to  remain  open 
for  about  two  hours.  This  should  be  done  early  in  the  morning, 
as  the  air  is  then  much  cooler  than  during  the  day  or  in  the  even- 
ing. 

In  removing  ice  from  the  stack,  the  early  morning  should  be 
taken  advantage  of,  because  of  the  waste  which  must  naturally 
ensue  from  a  rush  of  warm  air  at  midday.  That  removed  can  be 
placed  in  a  cellar,  or  even  an  outhouse,  and  be  enveloped  in  saw- 
dust until  required.  The  ice  must  be  taken  from  the  top  ;  and 
when  tlie  fir.st  supply  is  obtained,  a  good  (juantity  of  dry  sawdust 
should  be  placed  over  the  crown. 

Insect-Catching  Device,  A  simple. — Cover  the  inside  of  an 
old  tub  with  liquid  tar,  and  at  twilight  put  a  lighted  lantern  with- 
in, leaving  the  whole  out  over  night.  The  bugs,  attracted  by 
the  light,  try  to  reach  the  lantern,  and  are  caught  and  held  fast  by 
the  tar. 

Insects  on  Plants,  To  discover. — If  the  leaves  of  the  ])lant 
seem  reddish  or  yellow,  or  if  they  curl  up,  a  close  inspection  will 
generally  disclose  that  the  plants  are  infested  by  a  very  small 
green  insect,  or  else  with  red  spider,  either  of  which  must  be  de- 
stroyed. For  this  purpose,  scald  some  common  tobacco  with  wa- 
ter until  the  latter  is  colored  yellow,  and  when  cold,  sprinkle  the 
leaves  of  the  ])lants  with  it.  It  is  a  gootl  plan  to  pass  tiie  stems 
and  leaves  of  the  plants  between  the  fingers,  and  to  then  shake 
the  ])lant  and  well  water  the  bed  iinnKnliately  afterward  ;  the  lat- 
ter operation  destroys  a  large  proportion  of  the  insects  shaken 
from  the  plant. 

Insects,  To  i)rotect  cattle  from. — Hub  a  very  weak  solution  of 
carbolic  acid  through  the  hair. 

MANtiKi:,  Salt  as. — Salt  should  never  l)e  applied  other  than  in  a 
]>ulveroiis  state,  and  never  employed  on  impervious,  cold,  and  hu- 
mid soils.  Tlie  best  manner  to  use  it  is  to  combine  it  with 
other  manures,  a  dose  of  2  cwt.  to  the  acre  being  sutRcieUt. 
When  selected  to  destroy  insects,  it  should  bo  applied  before 
sunrisi!.  In  the  casc!  of  cerr-als,  suit  strengthens  tlie  stems,  and 
causes  the  ears  to  fill  iietter,  and  favors  the  dissolution  and 
aesimilation  of  the  ])lios]>hates  and  silicates.  It  acts  vigorously 
on  potatoes,  and  can  be  <lelected  in  tlu^ir  ashes  to  the  extent  of 
on*!  half  or  one  per  ciuit.  Asparagus  is  a  verital)le  glutton  in  tlie 
|)reHenee  of  salt.  .A  <lose  of  '.'>  cwt.  j)er  acre  acts  without  fjiil  on 
beet,  injuring  its  value  for  sugar  ])nrposi-s  hut  enhancing  it  for 
tlie  fi'eding  of  cattle.     <'td/,a  has  as  marked  a  predilection  for  sail 


THE    FARM.  213 

as  asparagus  ;  and  in  Holland,  where  the  culture  of  peas  is  so  ex- 
tensive, salt  is  something  like  a  necessity.  Mixed  with  hay  in 
the  proportion  of  4  ozs.  to  1  cwt.,  the  fodder  is  more  appetizing  ; 
but  the  best  way  to  feed  it  to  animals  is  to  allow  them  to  enjoy  it 
in  the  form  of  rock  salt. 

Manure,  Soot. — Save  the  soot  that  falls  from  the  chimneys, 
when  the  latter  are  cleaned.  Twelve  quarts  of  soot  to  a  hogshead 
of  water  makes  a  good  liquid  manure,  to  be  applied  to  the  roots 
of  plants. 

Manure. — The  bodies  of  king  crabs,  often  found  along  the  sea- 
shore, when  decayed  and  mixed  with  sawdust,  straw,  muck,  or 
similar  material,  make  an  excellent  manure.  Land  so  poor  that 
no  wheat  could  be  grown  on  it,  has  been  so  enriched  by  the  appli- 
cation of  this  compost,  that  from  25  to  30  bushels  to  the  acre 
have  been  raised. 

Moss  ON  Trees,  To  destroy. — Use  a  whitewash  of  quicklime  and 
wood-ashes. 

Mowing  Machines,  Draft  of. — The  power  required  to  drive  a 
mowing  machine  at  work  may  be  resolved  into  direct  draft  and 
side  draft.     A  good  mowing  machine  should  be  so  balanced  be- 
tween the  driving  wheels  and  the  cutter  bar,  by  placing  the  line 
of  draft  nearer  or  further  from  the  heel  of  the  bar,  that  ordinarily 
there  will  be  little  or  no  side  draft.     If  so  placed,  the  end  of  the 
tongue  will  sometimes,  when  at  work,  be  drawn  toward  the  stand- 
ing grass,  and  sometimes  thrown  away  from  it  by  the  side  draft. 
Practically,  side  draft  is  of  small  account  in  a  good  machine.     The 
direct  drait  depends  upon  three  causes,  and  may  be  resolved  into 
three  parts :  1,  The  draft  of  the  machine  itself,  on  its  own  wheels, 
on  the  ground  ;  2,  The  power  required  to  give  motion  to  the  gear- 
ing and  the  knife  ;  3,  The  resistance  offered  by  the  grass  or  other 
substance  cut.   The  power  required  to  draw  the  machine  on  its  own 
wheels  depends  upon  the  size  of  the  wheels,  the  perfection  of  the 
axles,  and  the  smoothness  of  the  ground,  and,  other  things  being 
equal,  upon  the  weight  of  the  machine  ;  and  in  a  machine  weigh- 
ing 600  lbs.,  should  not,  on  a  smooth  firm  turf  and  level  field,  be 
more  than  75  to  100  lbs      Adding  to  the  weight  of  the  machine 
would  add  to  the  draft  just  in  proportion,  whether  that  added 
weight  be  in  the  machine  or  in  a  driver  on  it.     Suppose  the  ma- 
chine to  weigh  600  lbs.  and  the  draft  to  be  80  lbs.,  put  a  driver  of  150 
lbs.  on  the  seat,  and  you  have  increased  the  draft  25  per  cent,  or 
to  100  lbs.,  while  the  power  required  to  drive    the  knife  and  to 
cut  the  grass  remains  unchanged,  and  you  have  only  increased 
the  draft  20  lbs.     The  power  to  drive  the  knife  and  gearing  de- 
pends upon  the  perfection  of  the  gearing  and  the  weight  and 
velocity  of  the  knife.     A  machine  that  in  proper  order  may  not 
require  more  than  10  or  20  lbs.  of  power,  may  require  ten  or 
twenty  times  that  amount  from  deficiency  of  oil,  collection  of  dirt 
in  the  gearing,  gum  on  the  knife,  or  loosening  of  the  connections 
of  the  pitman  by  wearing  or  otherwise.     The  resistance  of  the 
grass  to  be  cut  will  vary  with  every  change  of  condition,  kind,  and 
thickness  of  grass,  and  every  variation  in  the  condition  of  the 
knife  and  rapidity  of  stroke.     The  greater  the  velocity  of  a  cut- 
ting edge,  after  the  velocity  is  once  obtained,  the  less  power  is 


214  THE    FARM. 

required  to  do  a  given  amount  of  work.     The  direct  draft  of  a 
good  marhine,  working  under  the  most  favorable  circiuusiances, 
has  been  determined  by  experiment  to  be  less  than  300  lbs.  ;  but 
tliose  favorable  conditions  are  not  always  to  be  obtained,  so  that 
tlie  draft  must   many  times  be  much   heavier.     The  jiower  of  a 
machine  to  cut,  other  things  being  equal,  depends  upon  the  hold 
the  wheels  have  upon   the  ground  ;  when  the  second  and  third 
causes  combined  are  sufficient  to  overcome  the  hold  the  wheels 
have,  the  latter   t^lide,  the  knife  stops,  the  machine  is  clogged. 
The  heavier  the  machine,  the  less  likely  this  is  to  occur  ;  putting 
a  heavy  driver  on  the  seat  will  sometimes  carry  a  macliinc  through 
when  with  a  lighter  one  it  would  clog.     When  the  knife  readies 
the  end  of  the  stroke,  its  momentum  is  considerable,  and  it  re- 
quires nearly  as  much  power  to  stop  it  as  it  did  to  start  it  to  ii.ake 
the  stroke ;  it  would  require  quite  as  much  if  it  were  not  for  the 
loss  of  some  power  by  the  friction  of  the  knife  in  the  guards.    Now 
if  the  joints  of  the  pitman  and  connections  are  all  perfect,  this 
stopping  occurs  when  the  crank  passes  the  centre  of  the  shaft 
driving  it,  and  the  remainder  of  the  momentum  of  the  knife  is 
expended  upon  the   crank  in  the   direction  of  its  length  and  at 
right  angles  to  the  driving  power,  so  that  none  of  that  is  used  up 
in  stopping  the  knife.     But  if  these  joints  of  the  pitman  are  loose, 
so  that  there  is  a  little  play,  and  the  crank  can  pass  the  centre  be- 
fore the  knife  reaches  the  end  of  the  stroke,  this  momentum  will 
be  expended  in  opposition  to  the  driving  power,  and  will  of  course 
increase  the  power  necessary  to  work  the  machine  by  so  much  as 
is  necessary  to  overcome  the  momentum  of  the  knife  ;  again,  the 
crank  beginning  to  act  upon  the  knife  after  it  has  passed  the  cen- 
tre to  make  the  return  stroke,  the  knife  must  start  with  a  greater 
velocity,  causing  another  loss.     Xow,  put  the  same  machine  into 
the  grass,  and  the  grass  operates  to  stop  the  knife  as  soon  as  the 
crank  allows  it  to  stop,  thus  saving  the  momentum  that  was  ex- 
pended upon  the  crank  in  ojiposition  to  the  driving  jiower.  and 
also  shortening  the  stroke  and  saving  power  that  way.     Supj)i)8- 
ing,  to  illustrate,  that  there  is  a  play  of  ^  inch  in  the  joints,  tlien 
the  knife  running  out  of  the  grass  will  be  thrown  to  the  extreme 
length  each  way,  and  will  add  1  inch  to  the  length  of  the  stroke, 
increasing  the  i)owcr  necessary  to  make  it.     If  it  re(|uires  a  cer- 
tain number  of  pounds  power  to   make  a  stroke   ot   3  inches  in 
length,  it  will  require  33^  per  cent  more  power  to  make  a  stroke 
of  4  inches  in  length  in  the  same  time.      ^Vhenever  these  amounts 
of  power  lost  in  this   way  equal  the  power  required   to  cut  the 
grass,  tlien  the  machine  will  draw  just  as  heavily  out  of  the  grass 
as  in  it.      From  these  premises  many  deductions  nuiy  be  made  as 
to  tlie  care  and  practical  use  of  mowing  machines. 

Nkst  Kfu;s,  To  make. — Take  an  f)rdinary  hen's  cfXiS,  break  a 
small  hole  in  tlie  small  end,  about  ji  of  an  incli  in  diameter,  ex- 
tract the  <-ontents,  and,  after  it  is  thoroughly  dear  inside,  till  it 
with  i)o\vdered  slaked  lime,  tamping  it  in  ordiT  to  inaki^  it  con- 
tain as  much  as  possible.  After  it  is  full,  seal  it  up  witii  jilasti-r 
o'  Paris,  and  you  have  a  nest  egg  which  can  not  he  distinguisiied 
by  tile  hen  from  tlu;  other  eggs,  and  one  which  will  not  crack 
(like  otlier  aggB)  by  being  frozen. 


THE   FARM.  215 

Onions,  To  transplant.— Plant  them  tightly  in  the  soil,  with 
the  leaves  pointing  to  the  north.  When  thus  placed,  after  the 
vegetables  take  root,  the  sun  will  draw  the  stalks  vertical. 

Oxen,  Food  consumed  by. — An  ox  will  consume  2  per  cent  of 
his  weight  of  hay  per  day  to  maintain  his  condition.  If  put  to 
moderate  labor,  an  increase  of  this  quantity  to  3  per  cent  will  en- 
able him  to  perform  his  work  and  still  maintain  his  flesh.  If  he 
is  to  be  fatted,  he  requires  about  4^  per  cent  of  his  weight  daily 
in  nutritious  food. 

Painting  Boats. — Boats  should  be  painted  with  raw  oil. 
Boiled  oil  used  in  the  paint  is  very  apt  to  blister  and  peel  from 
the  wood. 

Paris  Green,  To  use. — In  using  Paris  green  to  exterminate 
the  potato  bugs,  the  poison  should  be  mixed  with  the  cheapest 
grade  of  flour,  1  lb.  green  to  10  lbs.  flour.  A  good  way  of 
applying  it  to  the  plants  is  to  take  an  old  2  quart  tin  fruit-can, 
melt  off  the  top,  and  put  in  a  wooden  head  in  which  insert  a 
broom-handle.  Bore  a  hole  in  the  head,  also,  to  pour  the  powder 
in,  and  then  punch  the  bottom  full  of  holes  about  the  size  of  No. 
6  shot.  Walk  alongside  the  rows,  when  the  vines  are  wet  with 
dew  or  rain,  and  make  one  shoot  at  each  hill. 

Pastures,  Seeding. — Select  varieties  of  seeds  that  spring  up 
in  succession,  so  that  a  good  fresh  bite  may  be  had  from  spring  to 
fall. 

Pear  Culture. — Pears  have  a  tendency  to  crack  when  the 
trees  stand  in  soil  which  is  deficient  in  lime  and  potash.  Com- 
mon wood-ashes  contain  these  salts  nearly  in  the  proportions  that 
pear-trees  on  such  soil  require — 40  per  cent  of  potash  and  80  per 
cent  of  lime.  By  applying  wood-ashes  at  the  rate  of  four  hun- 
dred bushels  to  the  acre,  after  the  fruit  had  formed  and  cracked, 
the  disease  was  totally  eradicated  by  the  next  season. 

Peat,  Estimating  quantity  of. — Peat,  as  ordinarily  in  the  bed, 
will  weigh  from  2100  to  2400  lbs.  per  cubic  yard  ;  and  if  drained 
in  the  bed,  1340  to  1490  lbs.;  and  air-dried,  320  to  380  lbs.,  when  it 
will  be  found  to  be  reduced  to  about  i  or  ^  its  original  bulk. 

Peat,  Facts  concerning. — When  saturated  with  salt  water,  peat 
is  generally  unfit  for  heating  purposes.  The  fine,  clay-like  pow- 
der found  underlying  peat-beds,  of  a  yellowish  white  color,  is 
composed  of  shields  of  infusorial  animalculjB,  and  forms  a  supe- 
rior powder  for  polishing  metals.  In  working  a  bed  of  peat,  the 
first  step  will  be  to  ascertain  if  drainage  is  necessary  ;  and,  se- 
condly, how  it  can  be  effected  and  at  the  least  cost.  If  the  bed 
can  not  be  economically  drained,  resort  must  be  had  to  mechani- 
cal excavation.  It  is  best  not  to  drain  a  bed  below  the  level  to 
which  you  can  effectually  work  out  in  a  season,  unless  you  can 
close  the  outlet  drain  to  allow  it  to  fill  again  with  water  for  the 
winter,  for  the  reason  that  drained  peat  that  has  been  frozen  is 
apt  to  disintegrate  after  thawing,  and  become  impoverished  for  a 
solid  homogeneous  fuel.  Peat  that  has  been  well  manipulated 
and  dried  for  fuel  rarely  holds  more  than  10  per  cent  of  moisture, 
and  it  will  not  afterwards  become  saturated  with  water,  even  by 
immersion  for  an  entire  winter.     A  cubic  yard  of  closely-packed 


216  THE    FARM. 

peat  fuel  will  weigh  from  1630  to  2180  lbs.,  and  the  heating  value 
of  1  lb.  of  such  peat  is  equal  to  even  1^  lbs.  wood  ;  one  cord  of 
f/ood  wood  will  weigh  almost  4200  lbs. ,  and  1  cord  of  peat  fuel 
will  weigh  about  3750  lbs.,  showing  a  gain  in  space  as  well  as  in 
greater  heating  power. 

Plants,  Creeping,  Pegging  down. — To  propagate  lobelias  and 
verbenas,  the  first  bloom  should-be  picked  off,  and  the  branches, 
as  they  extend,  should  be  pegged  down  closely  to  the  surface  of 
the  mould.  The  branches  will  then  take  root  as  they  lengthen, 
and  by  thus  drawing  a  large  amount  of  sustenance  from  the  soil, 
they  will  bloom  very  freely  and  cover  a  large  space.  A  verbena 
may  thus  be  made  to  cover  a  square  yard,  and  a  lobelia  a  square 
foot  of  ground. 

Plants,  Iron  and  ashes  for. — Wliite  flowers,  or  roses,  that  have 
petals  nearly  white,  will  be  greatly  improved  in  brilliancy  by 
providing  iron  sand  and  unleached  ashes  for  the  roots  of  growing 
plants.  Ferruginous  material  may  be  applied  to  the  soil  where 
flowers  are  growing,  or  where  they  are  to  grow,  by  procuring  a 
supply  of  oxide  of  iron,  in  the  form  of  the  dark-colored  scales 
that  fall  from  the  heated  bars  of  iron  when  the  metal  is  hammer- 
ed by  tlie  blacksmiths.  Iron  turnings  and  iron  tilings,  which 
may  be  obtained  for  a  trifle  at  most  machine-shops,  should  be 
worked  into  the  soil  near  flowers,  and  in  a  few  years  it  will  be 
perceived  that  all  the  minute  fragments  will  have  been  dissolv- 
ed, thus  furnishing  the  choicest  material  for  jiaintiiig  flie  gayest 
colors  of  tlie  flower-garden.  If  wood-ashes  can  be  obtained  readi- 
ly, let  a  dressing  be  spread  over  the  surface  of  the  ground,  about 
lialf  an  inch  deep,  ami  be  raked  in. 

A  dressing  of  quicklime  will  be  found  excellent  for  flowers  of 
every  description.  It  is  also  of  eminent  importance  to  imj)rove 
the  fertility  of  the  soil  where  flowers  are  growing,  in  order  to 
have  mature,  plump,  ripe  seed.  Let  the  foregoing  materials  be 
spread  around  the  flowers,  and  raked  in  at  any  convenient  period 
of  the  year. 

Plants,  Potting. — Tlie  mould  for  potting  should  be  light  and 
loamy,  tlie  fertilizing  material  used  being  well  decayed.  If  the 
soil  is  rich  of  itself,  it  is  belter  to  be  eitlier  very  sparing  with  the 
fertilizer  or  to  dispense  with  it  altogether.  In  tlu;  bottom  of  tlie 
put  )»lace  sfveral  small  broken  pi(!ces  of  crockery  or  similar  ma- 
terial to  assist  tli(^  drainage  ;  and  in  setting  the  i)liint,  be  canfiil 
to  kee])  it  well  down  in  the  pot,  and  to  press  the  mould  moderately 
around  the  roots.  Tlie  surface  of  the  mould  should  be  about  half 
!Ui  inch  billow  the  level  of  the  top  of  the  flower-pot.  Slijis  should 
lie  planted  close  to  the  sides  i)f  the  ]wi,  and  in  small  i)ots.  When 
a  ]ilaiil  becomes  ])ot-l)oun(l,  that  is,  when  the  roots  have  become 
nialted  around  the  sides  and  bottom  of  the  ])ot,  tlie  ])lant,  so  soon 
as  it  has  ceased  blooming,  should  be  re-iiotted  in  a  larger  ]iot.  It 
is  not  neressfiry  to  remove  any  of  th»>  mould  from  the  roots,  but 
siiii])ly  to  All  in  tlie  space  in  the  larf^er  pot  with  new  and  rich 
mould. 

I'la.\T-1'i<()I1.(  Toit,  A  newspaper.— A  convenient  number  of 
newHpajw'rs  may  be;  jiasted  together,  and  the  edges  folded  over 
strings,  thus  making  a  screen  whidi,  susi)endod  ovisr  tlie  newspa- 


THE    FARM.  217 


pers  spread  loosely  over  the  plants,  would  give  the  young  shoots 
an  excellent  protection  in  the  severest  cold  weather,  and  from 
the  sun's  rays  in  summer. 

Plants,  Selecting. — Choose  those  whose  leaves  are  of  a  deep 
green,  and  in  all  cases  those  which  are  short  and  bushy,  and 
have  no  bloom  upon  them.  If,  however,  they  are  in  bloom,  cut 
off  thti  flowers  before  pUmting,  which  will  only  delay  the  bloom- 
ing a  -tew  days,  and  wiU  greatly  strengtheu  the  plant.  If  the 
plants  have  been  reared  in  a  greenhouse  or  under  frames,  keep 
them  a  few  days  before  setting  them  in  beds,  placing  them  out  of 
doors  in  the  daytime,  and  taking  them  in  at  night,  in  order  to 
make  them  hardy  and  prevent  them  suffering  from  the  cool  night 
air.  If  the  plants  ar^'  placed  in  a  cold-frame,  either  before  or 
after  being  planted  in  the  beds,  be  careful  to  lift  the  frame  during 
a  great  part  of  the  daytime,  otherwise  the  moisture  which  gathers 
on  the  inside  of  the  glass  will  fall  upon  the  plants  and  infallibly 
kill  them  by  what  is  called  dampness. 

Plants,  Treating  unhealthy. — Mr.  Peter  Henderson,  the  cele- 
brated horticulturist,  says  :  Whenever  plants  begin  to  drop  their 
leaves,  it  is  certain  that  their  health  has  been  injured  either  by 
over-potting,  over-watering,  over-heating,  by  too  much  cold,  or 
by  applying  such  stimulants  as  guano,  or  by  some  other  means 
having  destroyel  the  fine  rootlets  by  which  the  plant  feeds,  and 
induced  disease  that  may  lead  to  death.  If  the  roots  of  the  plant 
have  been  injured  from  any  of  the  above-named  causes,  let  the 
soil  in  which  it  is  potted  become  nearly  dry  ;  then  remove  the 
plant  from  the  pot,  take  the  ball  of  soil  in  which  the  roots  have 
been  enveloped,  and  crush  it  between  the  hands  just  enough  to 
allow  all  the  sour  outer  crust  of  the  ball  of  earth  to  be  shaken  off ; 
thi'U  re-pot  in  rather  dry  soil  (composed  of  any  fresh  soil  mixed 
with  equal  bulk  of  leaf-mould  or  street-sweepings),  using  a  new 
flower-pot,  or  having  thoroughly  washed  the  old  one,  so  that  the 
moisture  can  freely  evaporate  through  the  pores.  Be  careful  not 
to  over-feed  the  sick  plant.  Let  the  pot  be  only  large  enough  to 
admit  of  not  more  than  an  inch  of  soil  between  the  pot  and  ball  of 
roots.  After  re-potting,  give  it  water  enough  to  settle  the  soil, 
and  do  not  apply  any  more  until  the  plant  has  begun  to  grow, 
unless,  indeed,  the  atmosphere  is  so  dry  that  the  moisture  has 
entirely  evaporated  from  the  soil  ;  then,  of  course,  water  must 
be  given,  or  the  patient  may  die  from  the  opposite  cause — starva- 
tion. The  danger  to  be  avoided  is  in  all  probability  that  which 
brought  on  the  sickness,  namely,  saturation  of  the  soil  by  too 
much  water. 

Potatoes,  Hoeing. — By  drawing  up  the  earth  over  the  pota- 
to in  sloping  ridges,  the  plant  is  deprived  of  its  due  supply  of 
moisture  by  rains,  for  when  they  fall  the  water  is  cast  into  the 
ditf'hes.  Further,  in  regard  to  the  idea  that,  by  thus  earthing 
up,  the  number  of  tubers  is  increased,  the  effect  is  quite  the  re- 
verse ;  for  experience  proves  that  a  potato,  placed  an  inch  only 
under  the  surface  of  the  earth,  will  produce  more  tubers  than  one 
planted  at  the  depth  of  a  foot. 

Potato  Sprouts,  Poisonous. — The  sprouts  of  the  potato  con- 
tain an  alkaloid,  termed  by  chemists  solanine,  which  is  very  poi- 


21?!  THE    FARAr. 


sonous  if  taki'u  into  the  system.  Tl  does  not  exist  in  the  tubers 
unless  they  are  exposed  to  light  and  air,  which  sometimes  occurs 
from  the  accidental  removal  of  tlie  cartli  in  cultivation. 

Potatoes,  Stoi-incr. — A  plan,  tested  successfully  for  eight 
years,  is  to  si)rinkle  the  floor  with  fine  unslaked  lime,  over  which 
a  layer  of  potatoes  4  or  5  inches  in  depth  is  spread.  Then  sprin- 
kle again  witli  lime,  and  add  another  layer  of  potatoes  the  same 
depth  as  before,  and  thus  continue  till  the  whole  are  disposed  of. 
The  lime  used  is  about  one  fortieth  part  by  measure  of  the  pota- 
toes. 

Potatoes  thus  treated  have  never  become  infected  with  disease, 
and  when  disease  was  already  existing  it  has  not  spread  ;  besides 
which,  tlie  quality  of  the  potatoes  has  been  rather  improved  than 
otherwise  by  the  treatment,  especially  where  they  were  watery 
or  waxy. 

PorLTKV-lIousES,  Purifying. — Lime  is  an  excellent  purifier, 
and,  when  carljolic  acid  is  added  to  the  whitewash,  willeflectually 
keep  away  vermin  from  the  walls.  After  every  cleaning  of  the 
floor  it  should  be  sprinkled  Avith  carbolic  acid  ;  dilution,  twenty 
of  water  to  one  of  acid.  This  is  one  of  the  best  disinfectants  and 
antiseptics  known,  and  is  not  used  as  much  as  it  deserves.  The 
roosts  should  be  sprinkled  with  it  every  week.  This  whitewash- 
ing should  be  done  twice  at  least,  better  three  times  a  year.  The 
nests  of  sitting  hens  should  be  s])rinkled  with  carbolic  acid  to 
keep  off  vermin  ;  and  the;  coops  also,  where  young  broods  are  kept 
for  a  time,  should  l>e  purified  in  this  way.  If  a  hen  gets  lousy, 
the  dilute  acid  will  destroy  the  lice,  if  put  under  the  wings,  and 
on  the  head  and  neck.  Wood-ashi'S  are  excellent  to  be  kept  in 
fowl-houses  for  hens  to  dust  themselves  with.  They  are  much 
more  effectual  than  sand,  but  sand  should  also  be  kept  for  a  bath. 

Phopagating  Plants. — To  ])ropagate  geraniums  and  calceo- 
larias, do  not  let  the  plants  flower  too  soon,  but  pinch  off  the 
first  appt^aring  l)loom,  and  pinch  out  the  eyes  of  all  straggling 
branches,  which  will  immediately  thr.>w  out  side-shoots,  thus 
forming  very  healthy  and  strong  as  well  as  good  sha]>ed  plants. 
Givfi  l)referen<f  to  thost^  plants  Avhicli  liave  their  liranches  close 
to  the  surface  of  the  soil. 

Pkunino  Tukks. — The  iJropcT  cut  is  called  the  "  clean  cut,"  and 
is  made  by  cutting  at  an  angh;  of  45  ,  beginning  at  th(^  back  of  the 
bud,  and  finishing  slightly  above  it.  When  pruned  in  this  way  the 
wound  readily  and  raj)idly  heals,  and  coinmeiuu^s  tobe  covered  with 
new  wood  as  soon  as  the  young  bud  i)ushes  into  growth.  I'runing 
should  always  be  dmn-  with  a  keen  edged  knife,  holding  the 
shoot  in  the  left  han<l,  and  making  one  sliar|),  (piicU  ilriiw.  'J'lie 
operation  should  be  delayecl  until  the  middh^  of  February,  and 
jM^rfornied  Ijetween  tliat  time  and  the  niiildh^  of  Marcli. 

li.XTH,  Kxterniination  of,  by  bisulphiile  of  carl)on  — In.sert  a 
lead  pipe  into  llii^  iioles,  and  ]>our  in  Ijisnlphide  of  carbon.  This 
should  only  be  usckI  out  of  doors,  nev(!r  in  buildings.  An  ounce 
and  a  half  of  tlie  li(|nid  is  sullicient  to  pour  in  at  a  tiin<\ 
Where  there  are  several  holes  near  together,  slop  all  but  tlie  Olio 
in  wliich  the  bisMlphide  is  ])oui('(l,  with  bricks. 


THE    FARM, 


219 


Red  Si'iDEKS,  To  extermiuate. — Syringe  the  plants  freely  with 
water  once  or  twice  a  day,  taking  care  to  wet  the  under  side  of 
the  leaves.  Keep  the  air  of  the  room  moist,  by  setting  pans  of 
Avater  on  the  flues,  heating-pipes,  or  register  ;  give  all  the  light 
possible,  and  ventilate  freely  whenever  tlie  weather  will  permit. 
When  the  soil  is  dry,  give  sufficient  water  to  moisten  «all  the  soil 
in  the  pot,  and  water  no  more  until  the  surface  is  dry  again.  If 
plants  seem  stunted  or  sickly,  repot  them  in  fresh,  rich  soil,  or 
use  some  other  means  to  induce  a  healthy  growth.  The  red  spi- 
der is  any  thing  but  an  aquatic  insect,  and  will  yield  to  the  hy- 
dropathic treatment  if  it  is  persisted  in. 

Sand  is  the  best  substance  in  which  to  preserve  carrots  through 
the  winter.  It  should  be  perfectly  dry.  It  will  keep  the  roots 
crisp  and  prevent  softening. 

Spawn-Carrying  Device. — The  apparatus  represented  here- 


FISH-SPAWN  CARRYING    APPARATUS. 

with  is  a  new  invention  of  Mr.  Seth  Green.  It  consists  of  a  sim- 
ple wooden  box,  of  a  convenient  size  to  be  carried  in  the  hand  by 
means  of  tlie  handle  above.  Its  joints  are  covered  with  tin.  Inside 
are  numerous  small  trays  made  of  wood,  covered  below  with  can- 
ton flannel.  The  upper  tray,  shown  in  the  foreground,  is  pro- 
vided with  a  hinged  cover  of  the  same  materials.     The  spawn  is 


220  THE    FARM. 

placed  upon  tlie  bottom  of  the  trays,  together  with  moss  or  sea- 
weed, and  kept  moist.  The  temperature  of  the  room  may  be  so 
regulated  that  the  spawn  can  be  hatched  in  from  50  to  150  daya. 
Bnidk-troiit,  salmon  trout,  white-fish,  and  sahnon-eggs  have  beei) 
irausported  with  success,  over  long  journeys,  by  this  means. 

Skeds,  Germination  of. — The  germination  of  seeds  can  be 
watclied  at  every  stage  of  its  progress  by  laying  tlie  seeds  between 
moist  towels  and  placing  the  latter  between  plates.  The  towels 
can  be  lifted  without  damage  to  the  tender  sprouts. 

Seeds,  Vitality  of. — Seed  Vvili  not  germinate  if  they  are  too 
old,  and  disappointment  and  delay  often  result.  Experience  of 
seedsmen  indicat<  s  that,  if  properly  gathered  and  i)reserved, 
beans  will  retain  vitality  2  years  ,  beet,  7  ;  cabbage,  4  ;  carrot,  2  ; 
sweet  corn,  2  ;  cucumber,  10  ;  lettuce,  3  ;  mebjn,  10 ;  onion,  1  ; 
parsnip,  1  ;  peas,  2  ;  radish,  3  ;  squash,  10  ;  tomato,  7  ;  turnip,  4. 

Sheep,  To  protect  from  dogs. — An  old  sheep-raiser  says  that 
the  most  efhcacious  ])l;in  is  to  ])rovide  15  <»r  20  sheep,  in  a  flock 
of  100,  each  with  a  globular  bell  about  the  size  of  a  teacup. 

Sleigh. — The  length  of  the  double  whiffletree  and  the  neck- 
yoke  for  a  sleigh  should  be  just  as  long  as  the  sleigh  is  wide 
from  the  centn;  (^i  one  runner  to  the  other. 

Slugs,  Rose,  To  destroy. — Wood-ashes  must  be  sifted  on  early 
in  the  morning  while  the  leaves  are  damp,  the  branches  being 
turned  over  carefully,  so  that  the  under  sides  of  the  leaves,  to 
which  the  young  slugs  cling,  may  get  their  share  of  the  siftings. 
If  the  night  has  hwn  dew  less,  in  order  to  make  the  work  tho- 
rough, first  sprinkle  the  l)ushcs,  and  the  ashes  will  then  cling  to 
the  slugs,  to  their  utter  destruction. 

Stu.mps,  Clearing  oflE. — In  the  autumn,  bore  a  hole  1  to  2  inch- 
es in  diameter,  aceording  to  the  girth  of  the  stump,  vertically  in 
the  centre  of  the  latter,  and  about  18  inches  deep.  Put  into  it 
from  1  to  2  ozs.  saltpetre  ;  fill  the  hole  with  water,  and  plug  up 
close.  In  the  ensuing  spring,  take  out  tlie  plug,  pour  in  about  | 
gill  kerosene  oil  and  ignite  it.  The  stuni])  will  smoulder  away, 
without  blazing,  to  the  very  extremity  of  the  roots,  leaving  no- 
thing but  ashes. 

Stables,  To  remove  rank  snu-ll  of. — Sawdust,  wetteil  with  sul- 
|)huric  acid,  diluted  with  40  ])!irts  of  wafer,  and  distributed  about 
horsc!  stables,  will  remove;  the  disagre.ahle  aninioniacal  smell. 

Suii-SoiL  Dii.MN,  A  simple. — An  exctdlent  subsoil  drain  may 
be  made  by  digging  a  trench,  ami  fillinu^  in  the  bottom  with 
sticks  of  wood,  compressing  them  together  with  tlie  feet,  and 
then  covering  them  with  the  mould.  The  effect! vene^s  of  .such 
a  drain  will  endure  for  several  years,  and  the  final  decay  of  the 
wood  will  serve  to  euriili  the  soil. 

Si'MAc,  ('ulti vatir)n  and  jireparation  of. — Sunuic  is  largel\'  used 
in  tanning  the  liner  kinds  of  leather,  esjx'cially  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  the  hard-grained  nioniccf».s  and  similar  goods.  It  is  also 
einploycid  as  th<;  base  of  many  (X)lorH  in  calico  and  (hhilni  print- 
ing. 'I'Ik!  only  trouble  is  in  curing  it  ]>roperl\ .  This  must  be 
doiu!  with  all  the  care  that  is  bi'sfowed  upon  tobacco  or  hop.s. 
Exposure,  aftiT  cutting,  to  a  heavy  dew  injures  it,  and  a   rain- 


THE    FARM.  221 

Storm  detracts  materially  from  its  value.  It  is  cut  wlien  in  full 
leaf  ;  and  when  properly  dried  is  ground,  leaves  and  sticks  toge- 
ther. An  acre  in  lull  bearing  will  produce  not  less  than  three 
tons  ;  and  when  fit  for  market,  it  is  worth  from  eiglity  to  one 
hundred  dollars  a  ton.  The  manufacturers,  as  the  curers  are 
called,  pay  one  cent  a  pound  for  it  in  a  green  state.  The  Com- 
missioner of  Agriculture  advises  to  plant  in  rows,  in  order  to  cul- 
tivate between,  either  by  seed  or  cutting  of  the  roots.  We  should 
advise  cuttings  by  all  means,  as  sumac  is  as  tenacious  of  life  as  the 
blackberry  or  horse-radish.  It  will  never  need  but  one  planting, 
and  the  crop  can  be  gathered  any  time  from  July  to  the  time  of 
frost.  If  it  is  cut  later  in  the  season,  and  annually,  the  leaves 
and  the  stocks  can  be  ground  together.  If  the  cutting  is  delayed 
until  the  stock  has  formed  into  solid  wood,  the  leaves  must  be 
stripped  from  the  stock,  and  the  stock  is  thus  wasted.  It  is 
doubtful  if  any  thing  is  gained  in  the  weight  of  leaves  after  the 
middle  of  July,  at  which  time  almost  every  tree  has  completed 
what  is  called  first  growth  for  the  season. 

Sumac,  Mordants  for  dyeing  with. — The  mordants  used  for 
dyeing  with  sumac  are  either  tin,  acetate  of  iron,  or  sulphate  of 
zinc.  The  first  gives  yellow,  the  second  gray  or  black,  according 
to  strength,  and  the  third  greenish-yellow. 

Tools,  Paint  for. — White  lead  ground  in  oil,  mingled  with 
Prussian  blue,  similarly  prepared,  to  give  the  proper  shade,  and 
finally  mixed  with  a  little  carriage-varnish,  is  an  excellent  and 
durable  paint  for  farm-machinery  and  agricultural  tools. 

Trees,  Felling. — To  find  the  height  at  which  a  tree  must  be 
cut,  so  that  its  top  will  strike  a  given  point  on  the  ground  : 
Square  the  height  of  tree,  and  the  given  distance  from  tree  to 
point.  Divide  the  difference  of  these  squares  by  twice  the  height 
of  tree,  and  the  quotient  will  be  the  height  from  the  ground 
Avhere  the  tree  has  to  be  cut.  Example  :  Height  of  tree =60  feet, 
distance  of  point  to  the  tree  20  feet  ;  then  60^=3600,  30-==400, 
difEerence=3200.     3200^(2x60)=26.6  feet. 

Trees,  Fruit,  To  protect  against  mice. — Apply  to  the  bark  a 
mixture  of  tallow,  3  parts,  tar,  1  part,  hot. 

Trees,  Girdled,  To  save. — If  possible,  bank  up  earth  about 
the  trunk  to  above  the  level  of  the  girdle.  If  the  wounded  parts 
are  too  high,  bind  on  clay  with  a  bandage.  The  sooner  the  sur- 
face is  protected  after  injury  the  better.  The  death  of  the  tree 
is  caused  by  the  seasoning  of  the  sap-wood. 

Trees,  Young,  in  hot  weather. — If  the  trunk  is  fully  exposed 
to  the  sun,  it  should  be  protected  from  intense  heat.  A  couple 
of  boards,  tacked  together  like  a  trough  and  set  up  against  the 
trunk,  will  furnish  the  required  shade  ;  or  the  trunk  may  be 
bound  with  a  hay-rope,  or  be  loosely  strawed  up  as  for  winter 
protection. 

Trichina  in  Pork,  A  cause  of. — It  has  lately  been  found  that 
swine  may  become  infested  with  trichinse  through  eating  carrion, 
or  even  decayed  vegetable  substances.  This  is  a  point  worth 
consideration   by  farmers  who   incline  to  the  belief   that  dead 


222  THE    FAKM. 

chickens,  putrid  swill,  or  any  otlier  filth,  about  the  place,  is  legi- 
mate  food  for  the  pig. 

TuRNiBS,  To  protect  from  fly. — Use  lime,  slaked  just  before 
application.  Sow  it  by  hand  over  the  plants  ;  or  sow  brimstone 
with  the  seed.  A  simple  way  of  removing  the  insects  from  the 
plants  is  to  mount  a  board  two  feet  square  on  wheels,  cover  the 
under  side  of  the  board  with  tar,  and  straddle  it  over  the  rows, 
drawing  it  from  end  to  end  of  the  latter.  The  insects  will  jump 
oil  on  the  pitch  and  be  caught. 

Watekkall,  To  determine  the  height  of,  in  a  running  stream. 
— A  small  temporary  dam,  unless  one  exists,  must  be  made,  so 
as  to  secure  a  still  surface.  Take  two  poles,  sufficiently  long  to 
reach  from  the  bottom  of  the  water  to  the  required  line-level. 
Make  a  plain  mark  or  notch  on  both  sticks,  at  a  distance  from 
the  upper  end  equal  to  the  distance  of  the  intended  line- level 
above  the  water,  marking  that  distance  in  feet  and  inches.  Push 
the  poles  down  through  the  water  into  the  earth  at  the  bottom  until 
the  notches  are  both  at  the  level  surface  of  the  water,  care  being 
taken  to  have  the  poles  plumb  and  at  a  convenient  distance  apart. 
Sight  across  the  tops  of  these  two,  and  set  as  many  more  as  may 
be  desired  to  run  the  line  of  level  to  the  desired  jjoint,  and  the 
tops  being  ranged  accurately  by  the  first  two,  will  show  a  water- 
level  so  many  feet  above  that  of  the  water.  It  is  estimated  that 
this  is  a  more  accurate  way  than  the  use  of  the  ordinary  spirit- 
level. 

Water  for  Fisii-Ponds — Lead-pipe  will  not  do  to  conduct 
water  to  fish-ponds.     It  is  likely  to  poison  tlie  fish. 

Weeds,  Destroying. — Some  weeds  can  be  killed  and  prevented 
from  growing  in  garden-patlis,  by  watering  the  ground  with  a 
weak  solution  of  carbolic  acid,  1  part  pure  crystallized  acid  to 
2000  parts  water.     Sprinkle  from  a  watering-pot. 

Worms,  C'irrant  and  Goosereruy,  liemedy  for. — The  best 
is  powdered  white  hellebore,  obtainal)le  at  any  druggist's.  Put 
the  powder  in  a  common  tin  cup,  tying  a  juece  of  very  fine  muslin 
over  the  mouth.  Fasten  the  apparatus  to  the  end  of  a  short 
stick,  and  dust  the  powder  througii  tht;  musliu  lightly  upon  the 
bushes.  Do  not  work  on  a  windy  day,  and  ."^tand  to  windward 
during  the  operation,  as,  if  taken  into  the  nfj.'^trils,  the  hellebore 
excites  violent  sneezing.  The  Bame  material  is  a  good  remedy 
for  cucumber-beetles. 


HOUSEHOLD   HINTS. 


Ants,  Red,  To  drive  away. — Sprigs  of  wiutergreen  or  ground 
ivy  will  drive  away  red  ants  ;  branches  of  wormwood  will  serve 
the  same  purpose  for  black  ants.  The  insects  may  be  kept  out 
of  sugar-barrels  by  drawing  a  wide  chalk  mark  around  the  top, 
near  the  edge. 

Aquarium,  To  make  and  stock  an. — One  of  tlie  first  principles, 
in  constructing  a  tank  for  an  aquarium,  is  to  give  the  water  tlie 
greatest  possible  exposure  to  the  air.  The  simple  rectangular 
form  is  the  best.  This  is  generally  constructed  of  iron  and  glass  ; 
the  iron  should  he  japanned,  and  the  glass  be  Freucli  plate,  to 
insure  brilliauey  and  strength.  The  breadth  and  height  of  the 
tank  should  be  about  one  half  of  the  length.  Cheap  tanks  can  be 
made  of  wood  and  glass,  the  frame  and  bottom  being  of  wood, 
and  tlie  sides  of  glass.  In  order  to  make  the  joints  watertight, 
care  must  be  taken  to"  get  a  proper  aquarium  putty  or  cement. 
The  following  is  a  good  retipe  :  Put  an  eggcupf  ul  oil  and  4  ozs. 
tar  to  1  lb.  resin  ;  melt  over  a  gentle  fire.  Test  it  to  see  if  it  has 
the  proper  consistency  when  cooled  ;  if  it  has  not,  heat  longer  or 
add  more  resin  and  tar.  Pour  the  cement  into  the  angles  in  a 
heated  state,  but  not  boiling  hot,  as  it  would  crack  the  glass. 
The  cement  will  be  firm  in  a  few  minutes.  Then  tip  the  aqua- 
rium in  a  different  position,  and  treat  a  second  angle  likewise, 
and  so  on.  The  cement  does  not  poison  the  water.  It  is  not  ad- 
visable to  make  the  aquarium  of  great  depth  ;  about  eight  inches 
of  water  is  sufficient.  In  regard  to  the  light,  great  care  must  be 
taken.  Too  much  often  causes  blindness,  and  is  a  common 
source  of  disease.  The  light  fish  receive  in  rivers  comes  from 
above,  and  an  aquarium  should  be  constructed  so  as  to  form  no 
exception  to  this  rule.  All  cross-lights  should  be  carefully 
avoided,  at  least  if  the  light  is  very  strong.  Never  place  the 
aquarium  in  front  of  a  window  so  that  the  light  passes  through  it  ; 
for,  when  viewing  an  aquarium,  the  source  of  light  should 
come  from  behind  us.  Not  enough  light  is  as  injurious  as  too 
much,  and  causes  decay  of  the  vegetation.  Having  constructed 
a  watertight  aquarium,  the  bottom  is  strewn  over  with  clean 
sand  to  the  depth  of  1  to  3  inches  ;  on  this  a  little  gravel  is 
spread  ;  then  a  few  stones  or  rock-work.  Heavy  large  rocks 
should  be  avoided  ;  they  displace  a  large  amount  of  water,  and  in- 
crease the  danger  of  breaking  the  glass  sides.  Pumice-stone,  well 
washed,  is  the  best  kind,  being  light  and  with  a  rough  surface 
suitable  for  the  rooting  of  plants,  etc. ;  and  if  fancy  forms  are 
desired  (bridge- work,  etc.).  the  pumice-stone  can  be  cut  quite  easily 
to  the  desired  shapes.  The  plants  are  rooted  in  the  sand  and  the 
vessel  left  at  rest  for  a  week  for  the  plants  to  vegetate.  The  fol- 
lowing plants  will  be   found  useful  :   Utricutaria  inflata,  utricu- 


224  HOUSEHOLD    HINTS. 

Inria  vulgaris,  myyiopJiyUum  spicat  <m,  anarcharis  Canadensis,  and 
hottoida  ii'flutii. 

In  obtaini^Ag'  plants,  procure  all  the  roots  and  see  that  they  are 
well  rooted.  If  fungus  should  form,  add  snails  {planorbis  tricol- 
cis)  ;  they  will  completely  destroy  it.  After  the  plants  are  well 
started,  add  the  shells  and  amphibious  animals.  The  following 
shells  will  be  found  desirable  :  Planorbis  trivoldis,physa  hetero- 
stiiipha,  uiiio  complanatus.  Many  shells  are  not  needed.  Snails 
act  the  part  ot  scavengers  ;  and  where  the  different  elements  of 
an  aquarium  are  rightly  balanced,  two  or  more  snails  will  be 
found  sufficient. 

If  amphibitjus  animals  are  Introduced,  the  rock-work  must  ex- 
tend above  the  surface  of  the  water,  or  a  float  of  some  kind  must 
be  substituted.  It  is  impossible  for  them  to  live  under  water  all 
the  time,  and  they  would  die  without  some  such  arrangement. 

The  turtles  claim  lirst  rank.  The  enys  punctatu,  or  spottel 
water-turtle,  and  the  clivysemys  pieta,  or  painted  water-turtle, 
will  be  found  to  be  the  best  for  the  aquarium,  and  should  be  pro 
cured  when  very  young,  as  they  are  very  destructive  when  old. 
The  tritons  {triton  tiyrinus,  triton  iiiger),  the  red  salamander,  the 
ciay-fish  (/(.stttctis  B(trtoni),  are  all  suitable,  and  present  a  very 
odd  and  yet  a  very  natural  look  to  the  aquarium. 

In  selecting  the  fishes,  a  few  only  thrive  in  confinement. 
Among  these,  and  the  first,  is  the  gold-fish.  He  can  live  for 
months  without  introduced  food,  and  is,  without  comparison,  the 
most  hardy,  standing  remarkable  changes  in  the  tem])eratur(!  ;  and 
he  is  the  most  gaudy  and  attractive.  A  large  number  of  the 
fishes  prey  upon  each  other,  and  will  only  do  for  the  aquarium 
when  in  the  young  state.  Among  these  may  be  mentioned  pomo- 
tis  vulgaris,  or  sun-fish,  csoxretir.ulatus,  or  common  pickerel,  and 
j)erca  Jlorcsccns,  or  yellow  perch.  The  leuciscus pyi/nnfus,  or  roL-k- 
fish,  is  a  great  addition,  and  is  found  very  plentifully  in  our 
streams.  The  jyimdvdus  atrarius,  or  common  black  catfish,  is 
another  worthy  of  a  i)lace.  So  also  is  the  hydr((rgia  diaphana, 
or  transparent  minnow.  But  few  fish  can  live  in  an  atiuarium, 
and  the  needless  crowding  together,  so  often  seen,  is  very  hurtful 
to  healtli,  and  causes  sound,  strong  fisli  in  a  short  time  to  become 
weak  and  j)oi>r.  The  great  difiiculty  in  keeping  an  aciuarium  is  to 
secure  enough  oxygen  for  the  fish.  To  a  slight  degree,  it  is  the 
duty  of  the  plants  to  su))])ly  this  ;  but  if  too  much  vegetation  be 
present,  decomposition  takes  place  and  ruin  follows.  It  has  been 
demonstrated  that  only  a  small  amount  is  necessary  to  absorb  the 
carboni<'  aciil  given  off  by  the  fish  and  anii)liibians  ;  conseiiuently, 
if  tlni  water  be  daily  ai'-rated  with  a  syringe,  it  will  absorb  an 
abundant  hupply  of  oxygen  for  the  animal  life,  and  the  trouble 
arising  from  the  decay'of  much  vegetable  matter  will  be  lessened 
or  altogether  avoided, 

AciUAUlU.M,  To  mend  broken  glass  of  an. — Fasten  a  strip  of 
glass  over  the  crack,  inside  the  aquarium,  using  for  a  cement 
white  sludlac  dissolved  in  ^  its  w<ight  of  Venice  turpentine. 

AwNlNOH,  WATKitruoOKiNf}. — Dip  first  in  a  solution  contain- 
ing 20  per  cent  soap,  and  afterwards  in  another  solution  contain- 
ing the  same  percentage  of  copper.     Wash  afterwards. 


1 


HOUSEHOLD    HINTS.  225 

Benzole,  Necessity  of  care  in  use  of. — Benzole  is  often  em- 
ployed for  removing  grease-spots.  It  is  highly  volatile  and  in- 
tiammable  ;  so  that  the  contents  of  a  4-oz.  phial,  if  overturned, 
will  render  the  air  of  a  moderate- sized  room  highly  explosive. 
Never  handle  it  near  a  fire  or  light,  as  the  tiame,  igniting  the 
vapor  from  an  uncorked  bottle,  will  leap  over  to  the  latter,  often 
over  a  distance  of  several  feet. 

Bites,  Rattlesnake,  Remedy  for. — The  following  is  used  by 
soldiers  on  the  plains,  and  is  said  to  be  efficacious  :  Iodide  of 
potassium,  4  grains  ;  corrosive  sublimate,  2  grains  ;  bromine,  5 
drachms.  Ten  drops,  diluted  with  a  tablespoonfiil  or  two  of 
brandy,  wine,  or  whisky,  is  the  dose,  to  be  repeated  if  necessary. 
Keep  in  a  well-stoppered  phial. 

Boot  Jelly  and  Shirt  Coffee. — Some  time  ago.  Dr. 
Vander  Weyde,  of  New-York  City,  regaled  some  friends  not 
merely  with  boot  jelly,  but  with  shirt  coffee,  and  the  repast  was 
pronounced  by  all  partakers  excellent.  The  doctor  tells  us  that 
lie  made  the  jelly  by  first  cleaning  the  boot,  and  subsequently 
boiling  it  with  soda,  under  a  pressure  of  about  two  atmospheres. 
The  tannic  acid  in  the  leather,  combined  with  salt,  made  tannate 
of  soda,  and  the  gelatin  rose  to  the  top,  whence  it  was  removed 
and  dried.  From  this  last,  with  suitable  flavoring  material,  the 
jelly  was  readily  concocted.  The  shirt  coffee,  which  we  inciden- 
tally mentioned  above,  was  sweetened  with  cuff  and  collar  sugar, 
both  coffee  and  sugar  being  produced  in  the  same  way.  The 
linen  (after,  of  course,  washing)  was  treated  with  nitric  acid, 
which,  acting  on  the  lignite  contained  in  the  fibre,  produced  glu- 
cose, or  grapi'  sugar.  This,  roasted,  made  an  excellent  imitation 
coffee,  which  an  addition  of  unroasted  glucose  readily  sweetened. 

Boots,  Waterproofing. — Use  a  piece  of  paraffine  candle 
about  the  size  of  a  nut,  dissolved  in  lard-oil  at  140°  Fahr.  Apply 
once  a  month. 

Boots,  To  stop  squeaking  of. — Drive  a  peg  into  the  middle  of 
the  sole. 

Boots,  Wet. — When  the  boots  are  taken  off,  fill  them  quite 
full  with  dry  oats.  This  grain  has  a  great  fondness  for  damp, 
and  will  rapidly  absorb  the  least  vestige  of  it  from  the  wet 
leather.  As  it  quickly  and  completely  takes  up  the  moisture,  it 
swells  and  fills  the  boot  with  a  tightly-fitting  last,  keeping  its 
form  good,  and  drying  the  leather  without  hardening  it.  In  the 
morning,  shake  out  the  oats  and  hang  them  in  a  bag  near  the 
fire  to  dry,  ready  for  the  next  wet  night  ;  draw  on  the  boots,  and 
go  happily  and  comfortably  about  the  day's  work. 

Bottles  cont.aining  Resinous  Solutions,  To  clean. — Wash 
with  caustic  alkaline  lyes  and  rinse  with  alcohol  ;  if  they  have 
held  essential  oils,  wash  with  sulphuric  acid  and  rinse  with 
water. 

BOTTLFS,  Sealing. — Gelatine  mixed  with  glycerine  is  used  for 
this  purpose.  This  is  liquid  while  hot,  but  an  elastic  solid  when 
cold. 

BoTTi-ES,  To  cut  in  two. — Turn  the  bottle  as  evenly  as  possi- 
ble over  a  low  gaslight  fiame  for  about  10  minutes  ;    then  dip 


226  HOUSEHOLD    HINTS. 

Steadily  in  water,  and  the  sudden  cooling  will  cause  a  regular 
crack  to  encircle  the  side  at  the  heated  phice,  allowing  the  por- 
tions to  be  easily  separated. 

Bottles,  To  prevent  breakage  in  packing. — Slip  rubber  rings 
over  them. 

BUHNS,  Remedy  for. — White  lead  rubbed  to  a  paste  in  linseed- 
oil.  Another  good  remedy  is  as  follows  :  Take  the  best  white 
glue  (extra),  15  ozs.  ;  break  it  into  small  pieces,  add  to  it  2 
pints  cold  water,  and  allow  it  to  become  soft.  Then  melt  it  on 
a  water-bath,  add  to  it  2  fluid  ounces  glycerine  and  6  drachms 
carbolic  acid,  and  continue  the  heat  on  the  water-bath  until  a 
glossy,  tough  skin  begins  to  form  over  the  surface  in  the  inter- 
vals of  stirring.  The  mixture  may  be  used  at  once,  after  the 
glue  is  melted  and  the  glycerine  and  carbolic  acid  are  added  ;  but 
when  time  allows,  it  is  advisable  to  get  rid  of  a  little  more  of  the 
water,  until  the  proper  point  is  reached.  On  cooling,  this  mix- 
ture hardens  to  an  elastic  mass,  covered  with  a  shining  parch- 
ment-like skin,  and  may  be  kept  for  any  time.  When  using  it, 
it  is  jilaced  for  a  few  minutes  on  the  water-bath  until  sufficiently 
liquid  lor  application.  (It  should  be  quite  fluid.)  Should  it  at  any 
time  require  too  high  a  heat  to  become  fluid,  this  may  be  corrected 
by  adding  a  little  water.  It  is  applied  by  means  of  a  broad 
brush,  and  forms  in  about  two  minutes  a  shining,  smooth,  flexi- 
ble, and  nearly  transparent  skin.  It  may  be  kept  for  any  time, 
without  spoiling,  in  delf  or  earthen  dishes  or  pots  turned  upside 
down. 

Butter,  R.\ncid,  To  purify. — Melt  in  twice  its  weight  of  boil- 
ing water  and  shake  well.  Pour  the  melted  butter  into  ice- 
water,  to  regain  its  consistence.  Another  :  Wash  in  good  new 
milk,  in  which  the  butyric  acid,  which  causes  the  rancidity,  is 
freely  soluble.  Wash  afterward  in  cold  spring-water.  Another 
plan  is  to  beat  up  i  lb.  good  fresh  lime  in  a  pail  of  water.  Allow 
it  to  stand  for  an  liour,  until  the  impurities  have  settled.  Then 
pour  off  the  clear  portion,  and  wash  the  butter  in  that. 

Caps,  P.vpek.  To  make. — Provide  a  sheet  of  moderately  thick 
brown  paper,  size  from  18  inches  to  2  feet,  shape  as  in  Fig.  1. 
Smooth  it  out  perfectly  fiat,  and  double  over  as  in  Fig.  2.  Turn 
it  round  with  the  fold  from  you,  and  mark  the  exact  middle  of 
tlie  j)i('C<'  at  A,  Fig.  3.  Then  bring  down  both  corners,  and 
measure  off  mi  the  edge  B  from  the  point  .\,  Fig.  3,  a  distance 
equal  to  ^  the  circumference  of  your  head.  Mark  the  point. 
Now  turn  tin-  paper  over  so  that  tin-  under  side  will  be  upper- 
most, and  bend  the  apex  of  the  triangle  back  from  the  point  just 
marked,  as  in  Fig.  4.  Fold  over  tin;  sides.  Figs.  5  and  (!,  and 
with  scissors  cut  f)ff  the  portion,  C,  below  the  dotted  lint*, 
and  also  tlie  points  of  th(!  two  lower  corners  of  the  pieces  just 
bent  over.  Next  unfold  the  ])aper ;  sprt'ad  it  out  fiat  :  you  will 
find  a  square  marked  in  the  middle,  and  creases  leading  there- 
from to  the  corners  of  the  paper.  Double  up  the  material  on 
these  cri-ases,  so  as  tf)  bring  up  the  paper  as  sides  of  a  box,  of 
which  the  iiiidille  ^^l|uare  is  the  bottom,  as  in  Fig.  7.  Smooth  the 
folds  fiat,  and  your  work  will  ap|)ear  as  in  Fig.  H.     Lastly,  turn 


HOUSEHOLD    HINTS. 


227 


Fiq2 


Fiq.S 


Ficr.5. 


MAKING     PAPER     CAPS. 

up  the  edges  of  the  box  all  around  twice,  folding  the  paper  on 
itself.  Your  cap  is  then  complete,  and  if  the  measurement  di- 
rected above  was  correctly  made,  it  will  exactly  fit  your  head. 

Calico,  To  wash,  without  fading. — Infuse  3  gills  of  salt  in  4 
quarts  of  water.  Put  in  the  calico  while  the  solution  is  hot,  and 
leave  until  the  latter  is  cold.  It  is  said  that  in  this  way  the 
colors  are  rendered  permanent,  and  will  not  fade  by  subsequent 
washing. 

Carpets,  To  prevent  moth  in. — Wash  the  floor  before  laying 
with  spirits  of  turpentine  or  benzine.  Do  not  do  this  with  a  fire 
in  the  room,  or  with  any  matches  or  lights  near. 

Casks.— Rancid  butter,  pork,  and  lard  casks  may  be  purified 
by  burning  straw  or  shavings  in  them. 


,228  HOUSEHOLD    HINTS. 

Cellars,  Dry-rot  in. — This,  in  cellar  timbers,  can  be  pre- 
vented by  coating  the  wood  with  whitewash  to  which  has  been 
added  enough  copperas  to  give  the  mixture  a  pale-yellow  hue. 

Cellars,  Testing,  for  dampness. — Provide  yourself  with  a 
thermometer,  a  glass  tumbler  filled  with  water,  and  a  piece  of 
ice  ;  then  notice  how  low  your  thermometer,  when  placed  in  the 
tumbler,  has  to  sink  before  any  moisture  begins  to  show  itself  on 
the  outside  of  the  vessel  of  cold  water.  The  lower  the  tempera- 
ture to  which  the  thermometer  has  to  sink  before  moisture  is 
precipitated,  the  less  there  is  of  it  in  the  moisture  of  the  cellar. 

Chair-Bottoms,  To  restore  elasticity  of  cane. — Turn  the 
chair-bottom  upward,  and  with  hot  water  and  a  sponge  wash  the 
cane  ;  work  well,  so  that  it  is  well  soaked  ;  should  it  be  dirty, 
use  soap  ;  let  it  dry  in  the  air,  and  it  will  be  as  tight  and  firm  as 
new,  provided  none  of  the  canes  are  broken. 

Chapped  Haxds. — Rub  over  with  fine  soap,  and,  while  the 
lather  is  still  on,  scrub  the  hands  thoroughly  with  about  a  table- 
spoonful  of  Indian  meal.  Rinse  with  tepid  water,  dry  thorough- 
ly, and  wet  again  with  warm  water  containing  a  quarter  of  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  pure  glycerine.  Dry  without  wiping,  rubbing  the 
hands  together  until  all  the  water  has  evaporated.  Do  this  at 
night  before  retiring,  and  the  effect  will  be  apparent  by  morn- 
ing. 

Chest-Protector,  A  simple. — A  folded  newspaper  placed 
over  the  chest  inside  the  vest,  on  going  out  during  raw  spring 
weather,  constitutes  an  excellent  protector  for  the  lungs. 

Chicken  Feathers,  Utilizing. — Cut  the  plume  portions  of  the 
feathers  from  the  stem,  by  means  of  ordinary  hand-scissors.  The 
former  are  placed  in  quantities  in  a  coarse  bag,  which,  when  full, 
is  closed  and  subjected  to  a  thorough  kneading  with  tlie  hands. 
At  the  end  of  five  minutes,  the  feathers  become  disaggregated 
and  felted  together,  forming  a  down  perfectly  homogeneous  and 
of  great  lightness.  It  is  even  lighter  than  natural  eider-down, 
because  the  latter  contains  the  ribs  of  the  feathers,  which  give 
extra  weight.  About  l.G  troy  ounces  of  this  down  can  be  ob- 
tained from  the  feathers  of  an  ordinarj'-sized  pullet.  It  is  sug- 
gested that,  throiigii  the  winter,  children  might  collect  all  the 
featlicrs  about  a  farm,  and  cut  the  ribs  out  as  we  have  stated. 
By  tlie  spring-time,  a  large  (]uantity  of  down  would  be  j)repared, 
wliich  could  be  disposed  of  to  upholsterers,  or  enii)]oyed  for  do- 
mestic uses.  Ooose-feathers  may  be  treated  in  a  similar  manner, 
and  thus  two  thirds  of  tlie  product  of  the  bird  utilized,  instead  of 
r)nly  aboutone  fifth,  as  is  at  present  thecase.  Tiie  chicken-down 
is.^aid  to  form  a  beautiful  cloth  when  woven.  F<ir  about  a  scjuare 
yard  of  tin;  material,  a  pound  and  a  half  of  down  is  recjuired. 
'I'iie  fabric  is  said  to  be  almost  indestructible,  as,  in  place  of  fray- 
ing or  wearing  out  at  folds,  it  only  seems  to  felt  the  tighter.  It 
takes  dy(!  readily,  and  is  thoroughly  water-i)roof. 

Chkorv,  Determination  of,  in  ground  coffee. — Gently  strew 
tlie  powderupon  the  surfaceof  cold  water.  Chicory,  burntsugar, 
etc.,  contain  no  oil,  and  their  caramel  is  very  (juickly  extracted 
by  the  water,  witli  jiroduction  of  a  brown  color,  while  the  parti- 


HOUSEHOLD    HINTS.  229 

cles  Hiemselves  rapidly  sink  to  tlie  bottom  of  the  water.  On 
stirring  the  liquid,  coffee  becomes  tolerably  uniformly  diffused 
without  sensibly  coloring  the  water,  while  chicory  and  other 
sweet  roots  quickly  give  a  dark-brown  turbid  infusion.  Roasted 
cereals  do  not  give  so  distinct  a  color. 

Chimneys,  Burning,  Prevention  of. — The  soot  in  the  chimney 
can  not  burn',  except  as  the  fire  of  the  stove  is  communicated  to 
it  through  the  pipe.  If  the  pipe,  therefore,  be  kept  clean  and  free 
from  soot,  and  the  damper  in  the  stove  always  closed,  the  chim- 
ney will  never  burn  out.  To  free  the  pipe  of  soot,  take  the 
stove-handle  or  any  convenient  implement,  and  rap  the  pipe 
smartly  on  all  sides  from  top  to  bottom.  The  soot  will  fall  into 
the  stove  and  be  harmlessly  consumed,  or  it  can  be  removed  in 
the  usual  way. 

If  there  be  a  horizontal  pipe,  this  should  be  taken  down  twice 
a  year  and  thoroughly  cleaned.  Or,  if  the  pipe  be  only  a  few 
feet  in  length,  and  the  arrangements  will  admit  of  it,  provide 
the  horizontal  pipe  with  a  permanent  scraper,  as  follows  :  To  the 
end  of  a  stout  wire,  a  few  inches  longer  than  the  pipe,  attach  a 
small  segment  of  a  disk  of  sheet-iron,  at  right  angles  to  the  wire. 
Eemove  the  elbow,  and  thrust  the  scraper  into  the  pipe.  Pass  the 
other  end  of  the  wire  through  a  hole  punched  in  the  elbow,  loop 
the  end  of  the  wire  for  a  handle,  and  replace  the  elbow.  After 
first  rapping  the  pipe,  the  soot  can  all  be  drawn  out  and  letfall 
into  the  stove.  Clean  the  pipe  thus  as  often  as  once  a  fortnight 
during  cold  weather. 

Chimneys,  Smoky  stove  or  range. — To  prevent  smoking,  use 
a  screen  or  blower  of  fine  wire  gauze,  from  36  to  40  vdres  to  the 
inch,  immediately  in  front  of  the  fire  and  about  two  inches  there- 
from. 

Chimneys,  Sooty,  Cure  for. — Plaster  the  inside  with  salt 
mortar.  The  proportions  used  are  1  peck  salt  added,  while  tem- 
pering, to  3  pecks  mortar.  Chimneys  thus  treated  have  re- 
mained perfectly  clean  for  fifteen  years. 

Clothes,  Fire-proof  wash  for. — Four  parts  borax  and  3  parts 
Epsom  salts,  mixed  with  3  or  4  parts  warm  water  to  1  part  of  the 
combined  substances,  is  an  excellent  fire-proof  wash  for  clothes. 
It  should  be  used  immediately  after  preparation. 

China  and  Glass  Ware,  Care  of. — One  of  the  most  impor- 
tant things  is  to  season  glass  and  china  to  sudden  change  of  tem- 
perature, so  that  they  will  remain  sound  after  exposure  to  sudden 
heat  and  cold.  This  is  best  done  by  placing  the  articles  in  cold 
water,  which  must  gradually  be  brought  to  the  boiling  point, 
and  then  allowed  to  cool  very  slowly,  taking  several  hours  to  do 
it.  The  commoner  tlie  materials,  the  more  care  in  this  respect 
is  required.  All  china  that  has  any  gilding  upon  it  may  on  no 
account  be  rubbed  with  a  cloth  of  any  kind,  but  merely  rinsed 
first  in  hot  and  afterward  in  cold  water,  and  then  left  to  drain 
till  dry.  It  may  be  rubbed  with  a  soft  wash-leather  and  a  little 
dry  whiting  ;  but  this  operation  must  not  be  repeated  more  than 
once  a  year,  otherwise  the  gold  will  most  certainly  be  rubbed  off, 
and  the  china  spoilt.  When  the  plates,  etc.,  are  put  away  in 
the  china  closet,  pieces  of  paper  should  be  placed  between  them 


230  HOUSEHOLD    HINTS. 


to  prevent  scratches  on  the  glaze  or  painting,  as  the  bottom  of 
all  ware  has  little  particles  of  sand  adhering  to  it,  picked  up 
from  the  oven  wherein  it  was  glazed.  The  china  closet  should 
be  in  a  dry  situation,  as  a  damp  closet  will  soon  tarnish  the  gild- 
ing of  the  best  crockery.  In  a  common  dinner-service,  it  is  a 
great  evil  to  make  the  plates  too  hot,  as  it  invariably  cracks  the 
glaze  on  the  surface,  if  not  the  plate  itself.  The  fact  is,  when 
the  glaze  is  injured,  every  time  the  "things"  are  washed  the 
water  gets  to  the  interior,  swells  the  porous  clay,  and  makes  tlie 
Avhole  fabric  rotten.  In  this  condition  they  will  also  absorb 
grease  ;  and  when  exposed  to  further  heat,  the  grease  makes  the 
dishes  brown  and  discolored.  If  an  old,  ill-used  dish  be  made 
very  hot  indeed,  a  teaspoonful  of  fat  will  be  seen  to  exude  from 
the  minute  fissures  upon  its  surface.  These  latter  remarks  apply 
more  particularly  to  common  wares. 

As  a  rule,  warm  water  and  a  soft  cloth  are  all  that  is  required 
to  keep  glass  in  good  condition  ;  but  water-bottles  and  wine-de- 
canters, in  order  to  keep  them  bright,  must  be  rinsed  out  with  a 
little  muriatic  acid,  which  is  the  best  substance  for  removing  the 
"fur"  which  collects  in  them.  This  acid  is  far  better  than 
ashes,  sand,  or  shot  ;  for  the  ashes  and  sand  scratch  the  glass, 
and  if  any  shot  is  left  in  by  accident  the  lead  is  poisonous. 

Richly-cut  glass  must  be  cleaned  and  polished  with  a  soft 
brush,  upon  which  a  very  little  fine  chalk  or  whiting  is  put ;  by 
this  means  the  lustre  and  brilliancy  are  preserved. 

Cider-Stains. — These  may  be  removed  by  lemon-juice  or 
citric  acid. 

Cinders,  Sifting. — To  insure  servants  doing  this,  and  to  pre- 
vent vegetable  refuse  being  thrown  into  the  ash-barrel,  provide 
a  grated  cover  for  the  latter,  which  secure  by  a  padlock  to  pre- 
vent removal. 

Cisterns,  Cleaning. — This  should  be  done  just  before  warm 
weather  sets  in,  and  should  be  done  every  year. 

Clinkei{S,  To  remove,  from  stoves  or  fire-brick.  — Put  in  about 
half  a  peck  of  oyster-shells  on  top  of  a  bright  fire.  This  may 
need  rei)eating. 

Clothing,  Winter. — Sufficient  clothing  should  be  worn  to 
keep  off  a  feeling  of  chilliness  when  about  usual  avocations. 
Less  than  that  subjects  one  to  an  attack  of  dangerous  pneumonia 
at  any  day  or  liour.  More  than  tliat  oppresses.  Steadily  aim, 
by  all  possibh;  ways  and  means,  to  keep  oiT  a  feeling  of  chilli- 
ness, wliidi  always  indicates  that  a  cold  has  bt^en  taken. 

Clothes,  Protective  power  of. — Clothes  pn^tect  tlie  body,  by 
allowing  through  their  interstices  such  ventilation  tliat  the 
nervous  system  nuiy  not  be  senHil)le  to  extremes  in  changes  of 
temperature.  Dr.  Petteukofer  states  that  e(|ual  sui-faces  of  vari- 
ous materials  are  jxTuu'ated  hy  air  as  follows,  (Ininiel  Ix^iiig  taken 
as  100  :  Linen  of  medium  fineness,  58  ;  silk,  10  ;  buckskin,  58  ; 
tanned  loatlier,  1  ;  chanujis  leather,  51. 

Clo'I'IIKs,  |{eMovating  old.  —  Two  ozs.  coiuiihmi  tnitacco  boiled 
in  1  gallon  water  is  UHc;d  l)y  the  Chatham-street  dealers  for  reno- 
vating old  clothes.     Tlie  stuil  is  rubbed  on  with  a  stiff  brush. 


HOUSEHOLD    HIKTS.  231 

The  goods  are  nicely  cleaned,  and,  strange  to  add,  no  tobacco 
smell  remains. 

Clothes,  Washing  compound  for. — The  German  washerwo- 
men use  a  mixture  of  2  ozs.  turpentine  and  1  oz.  spirits  of 
ammonia  well  mixed  together.  This  is  put  into  a  bucket  of 
warm  water,  in  whicli  i  lb.  soap  has  been  dissolved.  The 
clothes  are  immersed  for  24  hours  and  then  washed.  The  cleans- 
ing is  said  to  be  greatly  quickened,  and  2  or  3  rinsings  in  cold 
water  remove  the  tui'pentine  smell. 

Cockroaches,  To  drive  away. — Poke-root  {p/iytolacca  de- 
candra),  sliced  thin  and  laid  about  a  house,  will  destroy  cock- 
roaches quicker  than  any  other  poison.  It  never  lails.  Another 
way  of  preparing  the  root  is  to  boil  1  oz.  in  1  pint  water,  until  all 
the  strength  is  extracted.  Mix  with  molasses,  and  spread  on 
plates  in  the  localities  infested  by  the  insects. 

Cork,  To  remove  a,  when  pushed  in  a  bottle. — When  a  cork 
gets  pushed  down  into  the  neck  of  a  bottle,  insert  a  loop  of  strong 
twine  and  engage  the  cork  in  any  direction  most  convenient. 
Then  give  a  strong  pull,  and  the  cork  will  generally  yield  suffi- 
ciently to  be  withdrawn. 

Corn,  To  can  green. — Dissolve  2\  ozs.  tartaric  acid  in  a  pint 
of  water.  Of  this  solution,  use  1  tablespoonful  to  every  pint  of 
corn  while  the  corn  is  at  boiling  heat.  When  opened  for  use,  add 
1  teaspoonful  soda  to  every  3  pints  of  corn. 

Cushions,  Stuffing. — Flaxseed  and  tallow  are  used  in  Germany 
as  a  stuffing  for  cushions.  One  part  of  tallow  to  10  parts  of  flax- 
seed are  employed,  the  mobility  of  the  greased  seed  rendering 
the  cushion  very  soft  and  pliable. 

Disinfectant  for  the  Breath,  etc. — A  very  weak  solution  of 
permanganate  of  pntasli  is  an  excellent  disinfectant  for  light  pur- 
poses, such  as  rinsing  spittoons,  neutralizing  the  taint  of  diseased 
roots  of  teeth,  cleansing  the  feet,  and  keeping  the  breath  from 
the  odor  of  tobacco-smoke.     Permanganate  is  not  poisonous. 

Engravings,  To  clean  mildewed  or  stained. — Moisten  the 
paper  carefully,  and  suspend  it  in  a  large  vessel  partially  filled 
with  ozone.  To  evolve  the  latter,  the  simplest  way  is  to  clean 
pieces  of  phosphorus  and  place  them,  half  covered  with  water,  in 
the  bottom  of  the  jar  in  which  the  pictures  are  hung.  On  a  large 
scale,  a  Ruhmkorff  coil,  giving  a  constant  discharge  of  electricity, 
would  be  preferable. 

Eye,  To  remove  substances  from  the. — Take  hold  of  the 
upper  eyelid,  near  its  angles,  with  the  index-finger  and  thumb  of 
each  hand.  Draw  it  gently  forward,  and  as  low  down  as  possible 
over  the  lower  eyelid,  and  retain  it  in  this  position  for  about  a 
minute,  taking  care  to  prevent  the  tears  from  flowing  out. 
When,  at  the  end  of  this  time,  you  allow  the  eyelid  to  resume  its 
place,  a  flood  of  tears  washes  out  the  foreign  body,  which  will  be 
found  adhering  to,  or  near,  the  lower  eyelid. 

Fermentation  of  Food.  —This  should  be  guarded  against  as 
the  warm  weather  approaches.  This  action  is  always  liable  to 
cooked  vegetables  when  set  aside.  Instead  of  warming  up  cold 
messes,  it  is  better  to  scald  them. 


232  HOUSEHOLD    HINTS. 

Bugs,  Fleas,  etc.  ,  To  destroy. — This  mixture,  wliicli  lias  been 
patented  in  France,  consists  of  80  parts  of  bisulphide  of  carbon 
and  30  parts  of  essence  of  petroleum. 

Floors,  Cheap  paint  for. — This  is  made  of  5  lbs.  French  ochre, 
^  lb.  glue,  and  1  gallon  hot  water.  AVhen  well  dried,  apply  one 
or  two  coats  of  linseed-oil. 

Floors,  Oak  stain  for. — An  oaken  color  can  be  given  to  new 
pine  floors  and  tables  by  washing  them  in  a  solution  of  copperas 
dissolved  in  strong  lye,  a  pound  of  the  former  to  a  gallon  of  the 
latter.  When  dry,  this  should  be  oiled,  and  it  will  look  well  for 
a  year  or  two  ;  then  renew  the  oiling. 

Floor  Wax,  Preparation  of. — Heat  to  boiling  2  ozs.  of  pearl- 
ash,  10  ozs.  of  wax,  and  i  pint  of  water.  Stir  frequently, 
until  a  thick  fluid  mass  is  formed  from  which,  upon  removal 
from  the  fire,  no  watery  liquid  separates  out.  Add  boiling  water 
cautiously,  until  no  watery  drops  are  distinguishable.  Place  on 
the  fire  again,  but  do  not  allow  to  boil,  and  add  by  degrees  8  or  9 
pints  of  water,  stirring  constantly. 

Earthenware,  Porous,  To  clean. — This  often  becomes  foul 
with  organic  matter  when  used  to  hold  water.  Use  1  oz.  mu- 
riatic acid,  rubbed  on  exterior  and  interior  with  a  piece  of  flan- 
nel.    Wash  afterward  with  hot  water. 

Egos,  To  preserve. — Mix  together  in  a  tub  or  vessel  1  bushel 
of  quicklime,  32  ozs.  of  salt,  8  ozs.  cream  of  tartar,  with  as  much 
water  as  will  reduce  the  composition  to  a  sufficient  consistence  to 
float  an  egg.  It  is  said  that  this  treatment  will  preserve  the  eggs 
perfectly  sound  for  two  years  at  least. 

Flowkrs,  Preserving. — The  flowers  must  be  carefully  sur- 
rounded by  perfectly  dry,  fine  sand,  in  such  a  manner  that  they 
will  h<»ld  their  form,  the  jtressure  of  tlie  sand  upon  all  surfaces 
being  alike.  Any  fine  clean  sand  will  answer  ;  it  should  be  sifted 
to  remove  all  coar.se  particles,  and  tlien  washed  in  successive 
waters  until  du.st  and  all  earthy  and  clayey  matters  are  washed 
away,  and  the  last  waters  when  jioured  off  are  perfectly  clear. 
The  sand  is  then  to  be  dried  and  then  placed  ovt-r  a  fire  in  a 
proper  vessel,  until  (juite  hot,  hotter  than  the  hand  can  bear, 
and  wlien  cool  it  will  l)e  fit  to  use.  After  heating,  it  should  be 
used  at  once,  before  it  can  absorb  moisture  from  tlie  air.  Good 
results  have  been  obtained  by  takinj;  a  clean,  thoroughly  dry 
flower-pot,  the  hole  in  the  bottom  r)f  which  was  stopped  by  a 
cork.  This  was  filled  a  third  full  of  the  dry  sand,  the  flowers 
Het  carefully  in  the  sand,  and  then  nior"  sand  slowly  added,  so  as 
to  surround  and  cover  tiie  flowers  inside  and  out,  and  set  in  a 
warm  place.  At  the  end  of  24  hours,  the  cork  was  removed 
from  llie  liolo  in  the  flower-pot,  and  the  sand  allowed  to  run  out 
in  a  small  and  gentle  stream.  The  flower«  were  left  in  the  pot, 
jKjrfectiy  dry. 

Flv-Pai'kr,  Adiiksive. — Smear  paper  with  a  mixture  of  mo- 
lasBcs  and  linseed-oil. 

Fk.\(imknts  OK  .Mktal,  Extracting,  from  the  flesh. — A  simple 
and  u.-sually  succis.sful  modi-  of  extracting  a  n<-edle,  or  any  jjieco 
of  steel  or  iron   broken  o(T   in   the  flesh,  ia  accomplished  by  the 


HOUSEHOLD    HINTS.  233 

application  of  a  simple  pocket  inaguet.  Iron  filings  have  a  way 
of  imbedding  themselves  in  the  eye  which  defies  almost  every 
ordinary  means  for  their  extraction.  For  their  removal,  a  small, 
blunt,  pointed  bar  of  steel,  well  magnetized,  will  be  found  excel- 
lent, and  we  should  reconmiend  that  workmen  liable  to  such  iu- 
juries  keep  such  an  instrument  about  them.  It  would  be  a  good 
])!an  to  insert  such  a  bar  in  a  penknife,  in  a  manner  similar  to  a 
blade. 

FnriT,  Canning. — The  following  table  for  boiling  fruit  in  cans 
will  douijtless  prove  useful.  The  first  figure  after  the  name  of 
the  fruit  refers  to  time  of  boiling  in  minutes,  the  second  to 
ounces  of  su;iar  to  the  quart  :  Cherries,  5,  6  ;  raspberries,  6,  4  ; 
blackberries,  6,  6  ;  gooseberries,  8,  8  ;  currants,  6,  8  ;  grapes,  10, 
8  ;  plums,  10,  8  ;  peaches  (whole),  15,  4;  peaches  (halves),  8,  4; 
pears  (whole),  30,  8  ;  crab-apples,  25,  8  ;  quinces  (sliced),  15,  10  ; 
tomatoes,  30,  none  ;  beaus  and  peas,  3  to  4  hours. 

Furnace  Heat,  To  moisten. — Dry  furnace  heat,  productive  of 
throat  and  lung  diseases,  may  be  moistened  by  hanging  a  wet 
towel  in  front  of  the  register,"  the  lower  edge  of  the  towel  being 
allowed  to  dip  in  a  shallow  vessel  of  water. 

Fttrnace,  To  prevent  rust  in  a. — Throw  some  quicklime  loose- 
ly on  a  board,  and  place  inside  the  furnace. 

Furniture,  Refinishing  oiled  or  varnished. — Oiled  furniture, 
scratched  or  marred,  may  be  restored  by  rubbing  with  a  woolen 
rag  dipped  in  boiled  linseed-oil.  Varnished,  by  similarly  rubbing 
with  a  varnish  of  shellac  dissolved  in  alcohol. 

Fabrics,  To  make  uninfiammable. — The  lightest  materials  are 
rendered  uninfiammable  by  washing  in  a  concentrated  neutral  so- 
lution of  tungstate  of  soda,  diluted  with  about  one  third  of  water, 
and  then  mixed  with  3  per  cent  of  phosphate  of  soda. 

Feet,  Frosted.— These  can  be  relieved  of  soreness  by  bathing 
in  a  weak  solution  of  alum. 

Ferns,  Ornaments  made  of. — Handsome  ornaments  can  be 
made  by  mounting  fern-leaves  on  glass.  The  leaves  must  first 
be  dyed  or  colored.  They  are  then  arranged  on  the  mirror  ac- 
cording to  fancy.  A  buttcrfiy  or  two  may  be  'added.  Then  a 
sheet  of  clear  glass  of  the  same  size  is  placed  on  top,  and  the  two 
sheets  secur  d  together  at  the  edges  and  placed  in  a  frame. 

Fire-Alarm,  A  simple  and  good. — An  old  gun  loaded  with  a 
heavy  charge  of  powder,  and  hung  near  the  ratters  in  a  barn,  or 
in  any  dangerous  locality  about  tlie  house,  makes  an  excellent 
fire-alarm.     The  explosion  is  caused  by  the  heat. 

Fire,  Extinguishing. — A  solution  of  pearlashin  water,  thrown 
upon  a  fire,  extinguishes  it  instantly  ;  the  proportion  is  4  ozs., 
dissolved  in  hot  water,  and  then  poured  into  a  bucket  of  common 
water. 

Fires,  Kerosene. — Never  try  to  extinguish  a  kerosene  fire  with 
water.     Smother  the  flames  with  blankets  or  rugs. 

Fire,  Precautions  in  case  of. — Keep  all  doors  and  windows  of 
the  structure  closed  until  the  firemen  come  ;  put  a  wet  cloth  over 
the  mouth  and  get  down  on  all  fours  in  a  smoky  room  ;  open  the 


234  HOUSEHOLD    HINTS. 

upper  part  of  tlie  window  to  get  the  smoke  out.  If  in  a  theatre, 
keep  cool.  Descend  ladders  with  a  regular  step,  to  prevent  vibra- 
tion. If  kerosene  just  purchased  can  be  made  to  burn  in  a  sau- 
cer by  iirniting  witli  a  match,  throw  it  away.  Put  wirework  over 
gaslights  in  show-windows  ;  sprhikle  sand  instead  of  sawdust  on 
floors  of  oil  stores  ;  keep  shavings  and  kindling-wood  away  from 
steam-boilers,  and  greasy  rags  from  lofts,  cupboards,  boxes,  etc.  ; 
see  that  all  stove-pipes  enter  well  in  the  chimney,  and  that  all 
lights  and  fires  are  out  before  retiring  or  leaving  place  of  busi- 
ness ;  keep  matches  in  metal  or  earthen  vessels,  and  out  of  the 
reach  of  children  ;  and  provide  a  piece  of  stout  rope,  long  enough 
to  reach  the  ground,  in  every  chamber.  Neither  admit  any  one, 
if  the  house  be  on  fire,  except  police,  firemen,  or  known  neigh- 
bors ;  nor  swing  lighted  gas-brackets  against  the  wall  ;  nor  leave 
small  children  in  a  room  where  there  are  matches  or  an  open  fire; 
nor  deposit  ashes  in  a  wooden  box  or  on  the  floor  ;  nor  use  a  light 
in  examining  the  gas-meter.  Never  leave  clothes  near  the  fire- 
place to  dry  ;  nor  smoke  or  read  in  bed  by  candle  or  lamp  light ; 
nor  put  kindling-wood  to  dry  on  top  of  the  stove  ;  nor  take  a 
light  into  a  closet  ;  nor  pour  out  liijuor  near  an  open  light ; 
nor  keep  burning  or  other  inflammable  fluids  in  a  room  where 
there  is  a  fire  ;  nor  allow  smoking  about  barns  or  warehouses. 

Fires,  Usual  causes  of. — Churches  and  lecture-rooms  of  all 
descriptions. — Hot  air,  hot  water  and  steam  i>ipes,  and  furnaces 
and  stoves.  Sticking  candles  against  coffins  in  vaults.  Christ- 
mas and  other  decorations  around  or  too  near  gas-fittings,  fires, 
or  lights.  Sparks  falling  upon  birds'  nests  in  spires  andbellries. 
Curriers  and  workers  in  leather. — Lime  slaked  by  rain.  Sparks 
from  foul  fines  and  furnaces  jjassing  through  opening  and  ]  ro- 
jecting  eaves  of  drying-rooms.  Friction  of  niacliinery  in  bark- 
mills.  Timb(n-,  coals,  shavings  of  wood,  and  leather  too  nearfiue.^. 
Drying  stoves  and  furnaces.  Spontaneous  ignition.  Smoking  in 
bark  and  other  rooms. 

Drapers,  tailors,  makers  up  and  vendors  of  male  and  female  iit- 
tire. —  \N'orking  late,  being  tired  and  falling  aslecj),  or  becoming 
careless  too  way  iires  and  lights.  Unprotected  and  swinging  gas- 
brackets. Crinolines  coming  in  contact  witli  fire  in  op:,'n  fire- 
places. Light,  ])endent  goods  being  l)lown,  by  tlie  o])ening  and 
shutting  of  d(K)rs  or  Ijy  concussions  or  drafts,  into  unprotected 
liglits.  (ioods  hung  on  lines  increase  the  risk  in  various  ways, 
Hucli  as  conveying  the  fiame  from  one  end  of  a  room  to  tlie 
other,  and,  wiien  tin;  line  lireaks  down,  making  three  sej)arate 
fires,  one  ut  eacli  end  and  one  in  the  middle  at  the  same  time, 
thus  originating  three  distinct  fires  for  CHch  line.  Cuttings  left 
carelessly  a])out.  Using  lights  while  intoxicated,  esp(;cially  by 
tailors'  work-])eo])l(!.  Ironing-stoves,  liot  jilates,  smoothing-irons, 
etc.,  loo  near  and  sometimes  on  timber  and  goods.  Smoking-to- 
bacco,  and  niatdn-s  for  lighting  it. 

Engineering  irarks,  and  irorkern  in  metal  if  all  descriptions. — 
Sparks  from  striking  liot  metal,  liot  metal  castings,  etc.,  left  too 
near  timber.  Heat  from  furnaces,  forges,  and  smitlis'  hearths  and 
flues.  Friction  of  nnichinery.  .lapunners'  stoves  overln^ated  or  dt;- 
fective.  Accidents  with  inelti'd  or  hot  metal.  lOxjjIosions  of  lilast 
furnaces.   Sifontaneous  ignition  of  oily  waste,  moulders'  lamp,  and 


HOUSEHOLD    HINTS.  .  235 

Other  blacks  ;  sawdust  or  sweepings  and  oil  ;  spontaneous  heating 
of  iron  turnings,  etc.,  when  mixed  with  water  and  oil. 

Farming -stock,  stables,  My,  yrain,  or  flour  stores  of^  all  descnp- 
tions. — Stacking  hay  while  green.  Sparks  from  passing  locomo- 
tives, etc.  Sparks  "from  steam  thrashing  machines.  Sticking 
candles  against  walls  and  timber  in  barns  and  stables.  Vagrants 
smoking  in  stables.  Vagrants  being  refused  alms.  Fire-arms 
used  near  farming-stock,  such  as  haystacks,  etc. 

Makers  of  gunpowder,  firetcorks,  lucifer  matches,  and  explosive 
compounds. — Overheating  of  drying-stoves  and  explosive  mix- 
tures. Dropping  lucifers.  Unprotected  lights.  Smoking.  Leav- 
ing phosphorus  uncovered  with  water.  Friction  and  percussion 
from  nails  in  boots.  Sparks  passing  through  broken  windows. 
The  sun's  rays  being  concentrated  through  bull's-eyes,  knots, 
etc.,  in  glass.'  Defective  casks  containing  gunpowder  or  other 
explosive  materials.  Spontaneous  ignition  of  red  fire  and  such- 
like compositions.  Carelessness  in  the  supervision  of  young 
children  employed.     Shavings  and  chips  too  near  fires  and  lights. 

Gas-works. — Hot  coke  near  timber,  etc.  Seeking  for  an  escape 
with  unprotected  lights.  Timber  too  near  furnaces,  retorts,  etc. 
Lime  slaked  by  raiu.  Defective  fittings  and  appliances.  Spon- 
taneous ignition  of  coals. 

Hat  manufactories. — Boiling  shellac.  Hot  irons  left  on  timber 
and  other  inflammable  things.  Defective  drying  and  other  stoves. 
Smoking  tobacco. 

Fishing,  Comfortable. — A  plan  practiced  on  the  Western 
lakes  in  winter  consists  in  having  a  small  house,  built  on  run- 
ners like  those  of  a  sled,  in  which  is  placed  a  small  stove,  while 
in  the  floor  a  small  aperture  is  left  through  which  to  drop  the 
lines.  Holes  are  cut  in  the  ice,  the  houses  are  moved  over  them, 
and  the  fishermen  sit  by  a  warm  stove  while  drawing  in  the  fish. 

Fish,  Gold,  Treatment  of. — Seth  Green  says  this  as  to  the 
proper  care  and  treatment  of  gold-fish  :  "  Never  take  the  fish  in 
your  hand.  If  the  aquarium  needs  cleaning,  make  a  net  of 
mosquito-netting  and  take  the  fish  out  in  it.  There  are  many 
gold-fish  killed  by  handling.  Keep  your  aquarium  clean,  so 
that  the  water  looks  as  clear  as  crystal.  Watch  the  fish  a  little, 
and  you  will  find  out  when  they  are  all  right.  Feed  them  all 
they  will  eat  and  any  thing  they  will  eat — worms,  meat,  fish- 
wafer,  or  fish-spawn.  Take  great  care  that  you  take  all  that  they 
do  not  eat  out  of  the  aquarium  ;  any  decayed  meat  or  vegetable 
in  water  has  the  same  smell  to  fish  that  it  has  to  you  in  air.  If 
your  gold-fish  die,  it  is  attributable,  as  a  rule,  to  one  of  three 
causes — handling,  starvation,  or  bad  water." 

Fishing-Lines,  To  water- proof. —Apply  a  mixture  of  2  parts 
boiled  linseed-oil  and  1  part  gold  size  ;  expose  to  the  air,  and 
dry. 

Flannels,  To  wash. — Take  soft  water,  as  warm  as  you  can 
bear  your  hands  in.  Make  a  strong  suds,  well  blued.  In  wash- 
ing fine  flannels,  wet  but  one  piece  at  a  time  ;  soap  the  dirty 
spots  and  rub  witli  the  hands,  as  washboards  full  the  flannels. 
When  half  clean,  add  three  times  as  much  blue  as  for  cotton 
clothes.     Use  plenty  of  soap.     When  clean,  have  ready  a  rinse  of 


236  HOUSEHOLD    HINTS. 

the  same  temperature  as  the  suds,  rinse  well,  wruig  tight,  shake 
briskly  for  a  few  minutes,  hang  out  in  a  gentle  breeze.  When 
nearly  dry,  roll  smooth  and  tight  for  an  hour  or  two.  Press  with 
a  moderately  hot  iron.  If  embroidered,  press  on  the  wrong  side. 
Flaimels  washed  in  this  way  will  look  white  and  clean  when 
worn  out,  and  the  quality  will  look  better  than  when  new. 

Garbage,  To  dispose  of. — When  not  fed  to  pigs,  the  best  way 
to  get  rid  of  kitchen  refuse  is  to  burn  it  in  the  range  or  stove. 

Gas  Escaping,  To  detect. — To  find  the  leak,  first  see  that  no 
burners  have  been  left  accidentally  turned  on.  This  is  often  the 
case  where  the  cock  has  no  stop,  and  is  caused  by  the  cock  being 
partially  turned  around  again  so  as  to  open  the  vent.  Imperfect 
stop-cocks  for  this  reason  are  dangerous,  and  should  be  promptly 
repaired.  Try  all  the  joints  of  the  gas-fittings,  by  bringing  a 
lighted  match  near  them,  to  ignite  the  escaping  gas  if  any  there 
be.  In  case  it  is  found  by  the  sense  of  smell  that  the  gas  is 
escaping  either  within  the  floor  or  walls,  do  not  on  any  account 
apply  a  match  near  a  crevice.  Turn  off  the  gas  at  the  metre, 
and  send  for  a  gas-fitter  at  once.  In  ordinary  leaks,  the  burner 
or  joint  should  be  unscrewed,  and  white  lead  or  common  bar- 
soap  rubbed  in  the  threads  before  screwing  home  again. 

(jrAS-LiGHT,  Average  prices  of,  in  the  United  States. — Maine, 
$3.87.  New- Hampshire,  $3.9().  Vermont,  $-1.80.  Massachusetts, 
$3.86.  Rhode-Island,  $3.35.  Connecticut,  $-4.03.  New- York,  $3.88. 
New  Jersey,  $3.80.  Pennsylvania,  $3.46.  Delaware,  $3.95.  Mary- 
land, $3.59.  Dist.  of  Columbia,  $3.16.  Virginia,  $3.89.  West- 
Virginia,  $3.11.  North-Carolina,  $6.67.  So'uth-Carolina,  $3.80. 
Georgia,  $5.07.  Fl(n-ida,  $S.O0.  Alaliama,  $4.83.  Mississippi, 
$5.25.  Michigan,  $3.43.  W^isconsin,  $3.87.  Ohio,  $3.33.  Indiana, 
$8.54.  Illinois,  $3.87.  Kentucky,  $3.92.  Tennessee,  $4.06.  Min- 
nesota. $4.31.  Iowa,  $4.52.  Missouri,  $3.95.  Arkansas,  $5.00. 
Louisiana,  $4.50.  Texas,  $5.75.  Kansas,  $4.55.  Colorado,  $5.00. 
Utah,  $4.00.     California,  $6.11. 

Total  average  net  price  of  gas  in  the  United  States,  $4.32*. 

Gilt  Frames,  To  restore. — Rub  with  a  sponge  moistened  in 
turpentine. 

Gl.\ss,  To  break  in  any  required  form. — Make  a  small  notch, 
by  means  of  a  file,  on  the  edge  of  a  piece  of  glass ;  then  make 
the  end  (if  a  tiihacco  ])i])(',  or  a  rod  of  iron  about  the  same  size, 
red-hot  in  the  fire,  a])])ly  the  hot  iron  to  the  notch,  and  draw  it 
slowly  along  the  surface  of  the  glass  in  any  direction  you 
please  ;  a  rrack  will  Ix;  made  in  the  glass  and  will  follow  the  di- 
rection of  the  iron.  Round  glass  bottles  and  flasks  may  be  cut  in 
tiic  middle  by  wrap])ing  round  them  a  worsted  thread  dipped  in 
spirits  of  turpentine,  and  setting  it  on  lirt'  wlien  fastened  on  the 
glass. 

(iLAHS  Jars,  To  cut. — Fill  the  jar  with  lard-oil  to  where  you 
want  to  cut  the  jar  ;  then  heat,  an  iron  rod  or  l)ar  to  red  heat,  im- 
merse it  in  the  oil  ;  the  unefpiiil  exi)ansion  will  rlieck  the  jar  all 
round  at  the  surface!  of  the  oil,  and  you  can  liftoff  the  top  part. 

(ii.Ass,  To  cut  without  a  diamond. — Hold  it  level  under  water, 
and,  with  a  pair  of  scissors,  dip  it  away  by  small  bits  from  the 
edges. 


HOUSEHOLD    HINTS.  23*7 

Grease-Spots  on  Clothing,  To  remove. — In  using  benzole  or 
turpentine,  people  make  the  mistake  of  wetting  the  cloth  with 
the  turpentine  and  then  rubbing  it  with  a  sponge  or  piece  of 
cloth.  The  only  way  to  radically  remove  grease-spots  is  to  place 
soit  blotting-paper  beneath  and  on  top  of  the  grease-spot,  which 
spot  has  first  been  thoroughly  saturated  with  the  benzole,  and  then 
well  pressed.  The  fat  gets  now  dissolved  and  absorbed  by  the 
paper,  and  entirely  removed  from  the  clothing. 

Hams,  Pickle  for  curing. — An  excellent,  well-recommended 
pickle  for  curing  hams  is  made  of  1^  lbs.  of  salt,  i  lb.  of  sugar, 
I  oz.  of  saltpetre,  and  i  oz.  of  potash.  Boil  all  together  till  the 
dirt  from  the  sugar  has  risen  to  the  top  and  is  skimmed.  Pour 
it  over  the  meat,  and  leave  the  latter  in  the  solution  for  4  or  5 
weeks. 

Heaeths,  Soapstone,  To  wash. — Use  pure  water,  and  then 
rub  with  powdered  marble  or  soapstone  put  on  with  a  piece  of 
the  same  stone. 

Hearths,  To  clean  gray  marble. — Kub  with  linseed-oil,  and  no 
spots  will  show. 

Ice-Water,  To  preserve. — Make  a  hat-shaped  cover  of  two 
thicknesses  of  paper,  with  cotton  batting  ^  inch  thick  between. 
Place  over  the  entire  pitcher 

Incubator,  A  cheap. — One  of  the  easiest  constructed  forms 
of  incubator  for  the  artificial  hatching  of  eggs  consists  simply  of 
a  cask  well  buried  in  a  manure-heap.  In  the  bottom  of  the  cask 
place  one  or  two  sieves  to  hold  the  eggs,  and  make  a  door  in  the 
side  for  the  removal  of  chickens,  etc.  A  pane  of  glass  may  also 
be  inserted  either  in  the  do<ir  or  at  any  convenient  point  for  view- 
ing the  interior.  In  the  head,  which  should  be  removable,  make 
an  opening  provided  with  a  sliding  cover,  for  regulating  the  size 
of  the  aperture,  as  may  be  necessary.  Form  a  bed  of  fresh 
manure  about  1  ft.  thick  (after  bedding)  and  6  ft.  scjuare.  On 
this  set  the  cask,  and  pack  more  manure  around  the  latter  until 
flush  with  the  top.  Now  take  off  the  head  or  cover  and  place  a 
thermometer  on  one  of  the  sieves.  Replace  the  cover.  The 
natural  heat  of  the  manure  will  warm  the  interior  of  the  cask. 
When  the  temperature  reaches  104'  (seen  by  the  thermometer), 
place  the  eggs  on  the  sieves.  The  hatching  process  then  begins, 
and  lasts  the  usual  time.  Care  should  be  taken  to  turn  the  eggs 
over  once  a  day,  and  to  allow  them  to  cool  slightly,  thus  imitat- 
ing the  natural  habit  of  the  hen  when  she  leaves  her  nest  in 
search  of  food.  The  temperature  of  the  interior  is  kept  uniform 
at  104°  by  removing  manure  from  the  side  of  the  cask  to  lessen 
the  heat,  or  by  substituting  manure  fresh  from  the  stables  in 
place  of  the  older  material,  in  order  to  increase  the  warmth. 

After  the  chickens  have  emerged  from  the  shell,  the  inte- 
rior of  the  cask  should  be  carefully  cleaned,  and  an  artificial 
"  mother"  placed  inside.  This  last  "consists  of  a  loosely-fitting 
disk  of  wood,  covered  on  its  under  side  with  sheepskin  or  a  piece 
of  buf?alo-robe.  Under  it  the  chickens  nestle.  It  may  be  sup- 
ported from  the  head  by  a  piece  of  cord,  or  by  a  rod  held  in 
clamps,  so  that  its  distance  from  the  bottom  of  the  cask  may  be 


238  HOUSEHOLD    HINTS, 

adjusted  to  suit.  The  warmtli  necessary  for  the  young  chickens 
is  maintained  by  the  manure,  so  that  the  hitter  answers  both  for 
this  purpose  and  foi-  the  hatching.  The  slide  mentioned  above, 
as  located  in  the  head  of  the  cask,  is  intended  for  ventilating  the 
interior. 

This  plan  is  now  in  practical  operation  on  one  of  the  largest 
poultry  farms  in  the  country  and  i.s  evidently  more  simple  than 
any  other  involving  the  use  of  s])ecial  a])i)aratus  and  gas  or  lamps 
for  heating.  A  cylindrical  vessel  must  be  used— never  a  square 
one,  since  the  chickens,  in  the  latter  case,  will  crowd  into  corners 
and  smother  each  other.  The  number  of  (yggs  hatched  depends 
upon  the  size  of  the  cask  or  the  number  of  casks  used.  As  many 
as  one  thousand  eggs  have  been  thus  incubated  at  a  time.  Any 
farmer  having  a  manure-heap,  however  small,  can  easily  test  the 
plan,  if  only  with  a  dozen  eggs.  The  matter  requiring  the 
greatest  care  is  to  keep  the  temperature  in  the  cask  uniform,  and 
to  have  the  manure  sheltered  from  rain,  which  would  cool  it. 

Ink,  Indelible,  To  remove. — If  the  ink  is  a  nitrate  of  silver 
preparation,  it  may  be  taken  out  of  the  fabric  (1)  by  washing  the 
latter  in  a  solution  of  hyposulphite  of  soda,  or  (2)  by  moistening 
it  with  a  solution  of  bichloride  of  cojiper,  and  then  washing  it 
with  liquid  ammonia. 

Ink-Stains,  To  remove,  from  mahogany. — Put  a  few  drops  of 
spirits  of  nitre  in  ateaspoonful  of  water,  touch  the  spot  with  a  fea- 
ther dipped  in  the  mixture,  and,  on  the  ink  disappearing,  rub  it 
over  inmiediately  with  a  rag  wetted  in  cold  water,  or  there  will 
be  a  white  mark  which  will  not  easily  be  effaced. 

Ink-Stains,  To  remove. — Wasli  carefully  with  pure  water,  and 
apply  oxalic  acid  ;  and,  if  the  latter  changes  the  dye  to.a  red 
tinge,  restore  the  color  by  ammonia. 

Insect  Bites. — A  good  remedy  is  borax,  1  oz.,  dissolved  in  1 
pint  water  previously  boiled  and  allowed  to  cool. 

Keys,  Fitting. — Wln-n  it  is  not  convenient  to  take  a  lock  apart 
to  fit  a  new  key,  the  key-blank  shouUl  be  smoked  over  a  can(lU\ 
inserted  in  the  keyhole,  and  ])ressed  firmly  against  tiie  opposing 
wards  of  the  lock.  The  indentations  in  the  smoked  portion  made 
by  the  wards  will  show  where!  to  file. 

Lamp-Burnehs,  To  fasten  kerosene. — Plasttsr  of  Paris  mixed 
with  resin  soap  is  a  good  cement  for  this  purpose. 

Lkad-Comc,  Preventives  of. — If  working  in  lead,  wash  the 
liands  several  times  a  day  in  a  strong  decoction  of  oak-bark. 
Keep  the  liair  short,  and  (if  a  ])ainler)  wear  a  clean  cloth  cap. 
Tlie  clothes  should  be  freciuently  washed,  and  tiie  liands  also,  es- 
jx-cially  before  touching  food.  Befon^  eating,  the  moutli  sliould 
be  rinsed  with  cold  water.  A  weak  oak  i)ark  di'coctioii  sliouhl  be 
usi'd  as  a  wasli  si'vcral  tinn-saweek.  'I'iie  l)ndy  sliould  be  sponged 
niglit  and  morning  with  cold  or  te]>id  water,  and  the  liair  tho- 
rouglily  wasiied  evtTy  (!V(uiing  afttsr  work.  Tlie  food  should  con- 
tain a  large  proportion  of  fatty  substances,  and  milk  should  be 
taken  in  largt?  (]uaiitilies. 

liEAK  AM)  Flowkk  Imi'KEHSIONS,  To  make. — Take  a  small 
quantity  of  printer'n  ink,  thinly  put  it  on  glass,  evenly  distribut- 


HOUSEHOLD    HINTS.  239 

ed.  The  end  nf  the  index-finger  will  serve  as  the  printer's  ball, 
to  cover  one  side  of  the  leaf  uniformly  ;  then  lay  it  to  the  exact 
place  where  you  wish  the  print  to  be  ;  lay  over  it  a  piece  of  thin, 
soft  paper  large  enough  to  cover  it ;  then,  without  moving  the 
leaf,  press  all  parts  of  it  with  the  end  of  the  thumb  firmly,  and 
you  will  have  a  perfect  impression,  that  no  engraver  can  excel  ; 
and  by  adjusting  the  leaves  at  the  proper  points,  accurate  prints 
can  be  taken,  and,  aided  with  the  brush  or  pen,  the  stem  and 
whole  plant  can  be  shown.  Excellent  specimens  of  impressions 
of  barks  of  trees  can  be  made  by  slicing  the  bark  ;  and  with  a 
little  care,  the  stems  can  also  be  taken,  as  well  as  flowers.  When 
colored  with  the  aniline  colors,  they  are  very  like  colored  en- 
gravings. 

Leather,  To  water-proof. — Saturate  with  castor-oil.  This  is 
excellent  for  winter  boots. 

Life  Preserver,  A  simple.— It  is  not  generally  known  that, 
when  a  person  falls  into  the  water,  a  common  felt  hat  can  be 
made  use  of  as  a  life-preserver.  By  placing  the  hat  upon  the 
water,  rim  down,  with  the  arm  around  it  pressing  it  slightly  to 
the  breast,  it  will  bear  a  man  up  for  hours. 

Linen,  To  bleach. — Javelle  water,  used  for  turning  white  the 
dirtiest  linen  and  removing  stains,  is  composed  of  bicarbonate  of 
soda,  4  lbs. ;  chloride  of  lime,  1  lb.  Put  the  soda  into  a  kettle  over 
the  fire,  add  1  gallon  of  boiling  water,  let  it  boil  from  ten  to  fif- 
teen minutes,  then  stir  in  the  chloride  of  lime,  avoiding  lumps. 
Use  when  cool.  This  is  good  for  removing  fruit-stains  from 
white  underwear. 

Marble,  To  clean. — Common  soda,  2  parts  ;  pumice-stone  (pul- 
verized), 1;  finely  powdered  chalk,  1.  Sift  through  a  fine  sieve, 
and  mix  with  water.  Rub  all  over  the  marble  until  the  stains 
are  removed.  Then  wash  the  stone  with  soap  and  water.  Marble 
that  is  yellow  wnth  age,  or  covered  with  green  fungoid  patches, 
may  be  rendered  white  by  first  washing  it  with  a  solution  of  per- 
manganate of  potash  of  moderate  strength,  and  while  yet  moist 
with  this  solution,  rubbing  with  a  cloth  saturated  with  oxalic 
acid.  As  soon  as  the  portion  of  the  stone  operated  upon  becomes 
white,  it  should  be  thoroughly  washed  with  pure  water  to  re- 
move all  traces  of  the  acid. 

Match-Scratchers. — The  best  are  pieces  of  shark-skin,  or 
squares  of  fine  wire  gauze. 

Mice,  To  kill. — Sprinkle  some  grain  near  the  holes,  and  throw 
near  by  a  few  bits  of  cotton  saturated  in  chloroform.  This  has 
been  tested,  and  mice  have  been  found  dead,  two  or  three  at  a 
time,  lying  with  their  noses  near  the  cotton. 

Mildew,  To  remove. — Make  a  very  weak  solution  of  chloride 
of  lime  in  water  (about  a  heaping  teaspoonful  to  a  quart  of 
water),  strain  it  carefully,  and  dip  the  spot  on  the  garment  into 
it ;  and  if  the  mildew  does  not  disappear  immediately,  lay  it  in 
the  sun  for  a  few  minutes,  or  dip  it  again  into  the  lime-water. 
The  work  is  effectually  and  speedily  done,  and  the  chloride  of 
lime  neither  rots  the  cloth  nor  removes  delicate  colors,  when 


240  HOUSEHOLD    HIJfTS. 

sufficiently   diluted   aud  the  articles  rinsed  afterward  in   clear 
water. 

Moss  Ornaments. — A  beautiful  orr anient  for  tlie  sittinjr-room 
can  be  made  by  covering  a  common  glass  tumbler  with  moss,  tlie 
latter  fastened  in  place  by  sewing-cotton  wound  around.  'I'hen 
glue  dried  moss  upon  a  saucer,  into  which  set  the  tumbler,  filling 
it  and  the  remaining  space  in  the  saucer  with  loose  earth  from 
the  woods.  Plant  tlie  former  with  a  variety  of  ferns,  and  the 
latter  with  wood-violets.  On  the  edge  of  the  grass  also  plant 
some  of  the  nameless  little  evergreen  vine,  which  bears  red 
(scarlet)  berries,  and  whose  dark,  glossy,  ivy-like  foliage  will 
trail  over  the  fresh  blue  and  white  oi  the  violets  with  beautiful 
effect.  Another  good  plan  is  to  fill  a  rather  deep  plate  with  some 
ot  the  nameless  but  beautiful  silvery  and  light  green  and  delicate 
pink  mosses,  which  are  met  with  in  profusion  in  all  the  swamps 
and  marshes.  This  can  be  kept  fresh  and  beautiful  as  long  as  it 
is  not  neglected  to  water  it  profusely  once  a  day.  It  must,  of 
course,  be  placed  in  the  shade,  or  the  moss  will  blanch  and  die. 
In  the  centre  of  this,  a  cliinip  of  large  azure  violets  should  be 
placed,  adding  some  curious  lichens  and  pretty  fungous  growth 
from  the  barks  of  forest-trees,  and  a  few  cones,  shells,  and 
pebbles. 

Mosquitoes,  To  drive  off. — Rub  the  skin  with  essence  of  penny- 
royal, or  with  a  little  coal-oil  on  a  bit  of  cotton.  The  smell  of 
the  oil  disappears  in  a  few  minutes. 

Mustard  Poultice:,  To  make  a. — In  making  a  mustard  plaster 
use  no  water,  but  mix  the  mustard  with  white  of  egg,  and  the 
result  will  be  a  plaster  whicli  will  draw  perfectly,  but  will  not 
produce  a  blister,  no  matter  how  long  it  is  allowed  to  remain. 

Mucilage,  Pocket. — Boil  1  lb.  best  white  glue,  and  strain  very 
clear  ;  boil  also  4  oz.  isinglass,  and  mix  the  two  together  ;  i)lace 
them  in  a  water-bath  (glue-kettle)  with  ^  lb.  white  sugar,  and 
evaporate  till  the  liquid  is  quite  thick,  when  it  is  to  be  poured 
into  moulds,  dried,  and  cut  into  pieces  of  convenient  size.  This 
immediately  dissolves  in  water,  aud  fastens  paper  very  firmly. 

Newspaper  Binder,  Temporary. — Take  two  pieces  of  light 
wire,  strong  enough  to  reach  across  the  paper  once,  and  throe  or 
four  ])ieces  of  stout  thread.  Place  one  wire  under  tlie  i)ni)('r  as 
far  from  the  edge  as  yon  choose  to  bind  it.  Put  the  threads 
around  the  lower  wire  up  through  the  paper,  and  tie  them  over 
tlie  other  wire  on  toj).  'I'emporary  covers  of  stiff  ])asteb<)ard  may 
be  added,  liaving  lioles  for  the  reception  of  the  thread,  the  wires 
being  placed  on  the  outside  of  the  cover.  The  successive  papers 
are,  of  course,  to  be  threaded,  one  by  one,  by  means  of  an  awl  or 
coarse  needle. 

Oil-Cloths,  Cleaning.— These  should  not  bo  washed  with 
soap.  A  coat  of  good  copal  varnish  at  long  intervals  improves 
them.  Oil-cloths  sliould  never  bn  scrubbed.  Wipe  with  a  wet 
cloth,  after  brusliing  with  a  soft  floor- brush. 

Oir.ED  Floors.— Tli(!  scrajyings  from  these  should  immediately 
he  placed  in  the  open  air.  They  are  liable  to  sjiontaneous  com- 
bustion. 


HOUSEHOLD    HINTS  241 

Oil-Paintings,  To  restore  old. — Take  the  painting  out  of  tbe 
frame,  lay  it  on  a  table,  face  up,  and  keep  a  wet  cloth  on  it  for 
two  or  three  days,  cliangiug  or  cleaning  the  cloth  as  often  as  it 
becomes  soiled.  When  the  painting  is  clean,  wash  it  with  a 
sponge  or  brush  dipped  in  nut-oil.  This  is  much  better  than 
varnishing 

Painter's  Colic. — (1.)  One  drachm  of  sulphuric  acid  in  10 
pints  of  table  or  spruce  beer,  or  mild  ale.  Shake  well,  and  allow 
it  to  stand  for  a  few  hours.  Take  a  tumlilerful  twice  or  three 
times  daily.  (2.)  Make  a  beer  of  molasses,  14  lbs. ;  bruised  gin- 
ger, ^  lb.;  coriander-seed,  i  oz.;  capsicum  and  cloves,  i  oz.  each  ; 
water,  12i  galls.;  yeast,  1  pint.  Put  the  yeast  in  last,  and  let  it 
ferment.  When  the  fermentation  has  nearly  ceased,  add  sul- 
phuric acid,  li  OZ3.,  mixed  with  12  ozs.  water,  and  14  ozs.  bicar- 
bonate of  soda  dissolved  in  water.  It  will  be  fit  to  drink  in  three 
or  four  days. 

Paint,  To  clean.  — Dip  a  flannel  rag  into  warm  water,  and  wring 
it  out  nearly  dry.  Take  up  on  the  rag  as  much  whiting  as  will 
adhere,  and'  rub  this  on  the  paint  until  the  dirt  or  grease  disap- 
pears. Wash  the  part  well  with  clean  water,  and  rub  dry  with 
soft  chamois-skin. 

Paint,  To  remove,  from  clothes. — Chloroform  will  remove 
paint  from  a  garment  or  elsewhere,  when  benzole  or  bisulphide 
of  carbon  fails. 

Paint,  To  remove  old. — Slake  3  lbs.  of  stone  quicklime  in 
water,  and  add  1  lb.  American  pearlash,  making  the  whole  into 
the  consistence  of  paint.  Lay  over  the  old  work  with  a  brush, 
and  let  it  remain  for  from  12  to  14  hours,  when  the  paint  is  easily 
scraped  off. 

Paper  Comforters. — Two  thicknesses  of  paper  are  better  than 
a  pair  of  blankets,  and  much  lighter  for  those  who  dislike  heavy 
bedclothes.  A  spread  madt-  of  double  layers  of  paper  tacked  to- 
gether, between  a  covering  of  chintz  or  calico,  is  really  a  de- 
sirable household  article.  Soft  paper  is  the  best,  but  newspapers 
will  answer. 

Papering  Walls. — Papering  and  painting  are  best  done  in 
cold  weather,  especially  the  latter,  for  the  wood  absorbs  the  oil 
of  paii*t  much  more  than  in  warm  weather ;  while  in  cold 
weather  the  oil  hardens  on  the  outside,  making  a  coat  which 
will  protect  the  wood  instead  of  soaking  into  it.  Never  paper  a 
wall  over  old  paper  and  paste.  Always  scrape  down  thoroughly. 
Old  paper  can  be  pot  off  by  damping  with  saleratus  and  water. 
Then  go  over  all  the  cracks  of  the  wall  with  plaster  of  Paris, 
and,  finally,  put  on  a  wash  of  a  weak  solution  of  carbolic  acid. 
The  best  paste  is  made  out  of  rye-flour,  with  2  ozs.  glue  dissolved 
in  1  qt.  paste  ;  \  oz.  powdered  borax  improves  the  mixture. 

Paste,  A  superior  flour. — Thoroughly  mix  good  clean  flour 
with  cold  water  to  a  paste,  then  add  boiling  water,  stirring  up 
well  until  it  is  of  a  consistence  capable  of  being  easily  spread 
with  a  brush.  Add  to  this  a  little  brown  sugar,  a  little  corrosive 
sublimate,  and  about  half  a  dozen  drops  of  oil  of  lavender; 
and  keep,  if  convenient,  two  days  before  using. 


242 


HOUSEHOLD    HTXTS. 


Petkoleum  Bakkels. — These  sliould  not  lie  used  to  store  food 
3r  drink  in.     They  are  poisonous  even  after  being  cleaned. 

Plant-Case,  A  housetop  or  window. — A  fernery  or  plant-case 
niiorht  he  arranged  to  run  the  whole  length  of  the  front  windows 
of  a  story,  and  he  heated  by  a  small  boiler  placed  behind  a  fire- 


RECTIOX   OF  ri..\.NT-CAJiE. 

place.  From  this  a  2-inch  flow  and  return  ))ipe  is  taken 
tlirougli  the  case,  so  as  to  heat  it  when  rctpiired.  The  space 
around  the  ])\\>ci^  can  he  lillcd  with  hark,  or  water  if  desirable, 
.so  as  to  ])roducf  a  moist  and  genial  bottom  lieat.  The  ferns, 
mosses,  and  other  decorative  plants,  are  arranged  in  flat  s(]uaro 
pans  of  zinc  or  earthenware,  as  shown  in  our  sectional  sketch, 
and  the  efTect  of  the  whole,  especially  when  sei-ii  from  within, 
is  very  effective,  and  afTonls  relief  to  tlie  eye,  which  might 
otherwise  looii  out  f)n  a  dismal  prospect  of  blackened  roofs  and 
Hoof-begrinuHl  cbininey-pots. 

Pl,ANT8,  Window,  Cnre  of. —  Plants  kept  in  the  windows 
should  lie  turned  every  ni'iniing,  or  the  light,  striking  on  one 
side  only,  will  draw  the  ])lant  to  thiif  side,  so  that  all  its  branches 
and  leaves  will  turn  toward  the  wimlow.  The  water  in  the 
saucers   should   never  In-  ap))lie(l  to  the  plants.      Fn  cutting  slips 


HOUSEHOLD    HINTS.  243 

of  any  plant,  always  choose  the  youngest  branches  ;  and  cut  ofi 
the  sli))  at  the  junction  of  a  joint  or  leaf,  since  the  roots  shoot 
more  readily  from  such  joints.  If  you  follow  these  directions,  and 
put  sufficient  sulphate  of  ammonia  to  just  taint  the  water  applied 
to  your  plants,  you  may  cultivate  with  success  almost  any  plant, 
even  though  you  are  an  entire  novice. 

Plant-Cases,  Wardian,  Management  of. — The  following  prin- 
ciples are  those  upon  which  a  fern-case  should  be  constructed  : 
1.  Have  no  apparatus  or  arrangement  for  drainage.  2.  Make 
your  case  as  air-tight  as  possible,  allowing  for  no  ventilation. 

Ferns  require,  tor  their  growth,  shade  and  moisture  :  upon  the 
former,  in  a  great  degree,  depends  the  latter.  A  northern  or 
eastern  aspect,  where  the  morning  sun  reaches  the  case,  we  tliink 
is  best.  As  regards  moisture,  we  have  the  principle  of  self-sup- 
port in  an  air-tight  case  ;  for  if  you  allow  the  sun  to  reach  the 
case  for  an  hour  or  so  in  the  morning,  you  will  find  that  the 
moisture  needful  for  the  growth  of  your  ferns  is  extracted  from 
the  earth  ;  and  when  evening  comes,  this  same  moisture  will 
condense  and  fall.  Each  day,  this  process  of  extraction  and  con- 
densation takes  place,  and  your  plants  flourish  under  a  necessary 
and  sufficient  moisture.  Now,  this  being  the  kind  of  air  we 
want,  we  must  not,  of  course,  ventilate  our  case,  and  allow  it  to 
escape,  otherwise  the  dry  air  of  our  rooms  would  enter,  and  the 
watering  of  the  case  become  a  necessity.  This  at  once  upsets  all 
the  benefits  derived  from  these  cases.  The  temperature,  also, 
must  be  much  more  even  in  an  air-tight  case  than  in  a  ventilated 
one,  where  the  constant  opening  and  shutting  of  doors  and  win- 
dows would  affect  it.  If  we  have  no  watering  to  do,  we  have  no 
water  to  run  off",  and  consequently  require  no  drainage  in  the  hot 
tom  of  our  case.  Now,  in  this  air-tight  principle,  we  get  at  the 
secret. 

In  stocking  Wardian  cases,  the  amateur  will  find  that  almost 
all  ferns  and  mosses  will  do  well  in  this  case.  There  ^re  few  of 
our  greenhouse  ferns  that  will  not  do  well  under  this  treatment ; 
the  gold  and  silver  ferns  are  perhaps  the  exception  ;  they  do  not 
always  attain  their  full  size  and  beauty  in  a  Wardian  case,  but 
the  adiantums,  pteris,  polypodiums,  blechnums,  and  others  do 
well. 

In  planting  a  case,  do  not  place  the  plants  too  near,  nor  use 
too  many  of  a  large  size,  but  put  in  a  few  plants  and  of  a  mode- 
rate size.  Water  well  after  setting  the  plants  out.  and  shade  the 
case  for  a  day  or  two  ;  then  give  it  the  morning  sun  each  day 
for  an  hour  or  two,  and  your  ferns  will  soon  start.  Nothing  can 
be  more  interesting  than  to  watch  them — the  frond  pushes  its 
head  above  the  earth,  the  heat  and  moisture  of  the  case  have 
their  effect,  and  it  gradually  rises  and  uncurls  till  it  reaches  its 
height,  then  it  expands  into  the  most  beautiful  and  giaceful  of 
shapes  ;  then  what  can  exceed  in  delicacy  and  freshness  this 
newly-born  part  ?  The  lycopodiums  grow  finely,  and  spread  very 
rapidly  in  the  case  ;  small  pieces  introduced  at  regular  intervals  in 
the  case  will,  in  a  marvelously  short  time,  double  their  original  size  ; 
and  if  the  pendent  roots  of  the  creeping  species  are  pressed  well  on 
to  the  surface  of  the  earth,  the  spaces  between  the  plants  and  ferns 
will  soon  be  filled  up,  and  a  rich  and  delicate  carpet  be  produced 


244 


HOUSEHOLD    HIXTS. 


over  the  whole  case.  For  climbers,  nothing  can  give  more  satis- 
faction th.a.njicusstiptdata,  which  can  be  obtained  at  all  green- 
houses.    The  roots  of  this  plant,  which  strike  out  at  every  joint. 


THE  PltlNCESS   OF   WALES   CASE. 


have  an  adhesive  power,  and  will  attach  themselves  firmly  to  the 
glass  in  the  case,  which  renders  the  growth  more  rapid  and  regu- 
lar. It  is  a  very  interesting  plant  to  wutch  ;  the  roots  adhering 
to  the  glass  allow  a  free  use  of  the  nucroscope,  and  the  growtli 
and  circulation  can  be  studied  to  great  advantage  from  the  out- 
side of  the  case. 


TlIK    ^VDKMIA.M    I  A^K. 


Ah  to  soil,  tlie  brst  mixture  for  tin-  growth  of  ferns  and 
lycopodiuinH  is  the  fnllDwiiig:  lit-af mould,  2  parts;  fresh 
sanil,  1  ])urt  ;  gnivcl,  about  the  sizr  of  a  ]»t'a.  1  jiart  ;  and 
stal)lc  nuinure,  clioppcd  v«Ty  fine,  1  part.  Ferns  whir-ji  grow  na- 
turally in  dry  plares  c-an  be  arranged  on  rock-work  in  the  centre 


HOUSEHOLD    HINTS.  245 

of  the  case,  if  it  is  large  enough  to  admit  of  it,  and  those  re- 
quiring more  moisture  should  be  placed  nearer  the  sides  of  the 
case,  and  they  will  get  more  moisture  from  the  glass,  where  it 
deposits  in  grer.t  quantities.  Tlie  spores  of  ferns  can  be  sown  on 
the  surface  of  the  earth  in  the  Wardian  case,  and  a  constant  sup- 
ply of  young  plants  can  in  this  way  be  obtained,  thus  enabling 
the  student  to  watch  them  in  every  stage  of  development. 

It  happens  that  not  un frequently  the  larvae  of  insects  are  in- 
troduced in  the  earth  into  the  case,  and  hatch  out  under  the  in- 
fluence of  the  heat.  To  provide  agahist  this,  it  will  be  found 
useful  and  interesting  to  put  in  a  small-sized  toad,  and  insects 
will  disappear  very  soon,  and  give  no  further  trouble.  Toads 
will  live  through  the  winter  perfectly  well  in  this  way,  and  their 
habits  can  be  studied  ;  some  may  become  aware,  by  trying  this 
experiment,  that  the  toad,  although  not  one  of  the  handsomest  of 
our  reptiles,  is  not  the  least  interesting. 

Plants,  Potting. — Those  who  find  their  efEorts  to  raise  house- 
plants  frustrated  by  worms  may  be  able  to  win  success  by  boiling 
the  earth  before  setting  the  plants.  Use  little  water,  and  allow 
it  to  simmer  away  after  a  few  minutes  of  hard  boil. 

Polish,  Furniture. — Shave  very  fine  white  wax,  3  ozs.,  cas- 
tile-soap,  1  oz.  ;  put  the  was  in  1  gill  turpentine,  and  let  it  stand 
24  hours.  Boil  the  soap  in  1  gill  water,  and  add  to  wax  and  tur- 
pentine. 

Potatoes,  Saratoga,  Fried. — The  following  is  all  there  is  of 
the  cook's  secret  for  producing  those  w'orld-renowned  potatoes 
served  at  Moon's  Lake  House,  Saratoga  Spr  ngs,  every  summer  : 
Peel  good-sized  potatoes,  and  slice  them  as  evenly  as  possible  ; 
drop  them  into  ice-water.  Have  a  kettle  of  lard,  as  for  fried 
cakes,  and  veTj  hot.  Put  a  few  at  a  time  into  a  towel,  shake 
them  about  to  dry  them,  and  then  drop  into  the  hot  lard.  Stir 
them  occasionally  ;  and  when  of  a  light  brown,  take  them  out 
with  a  skimmer.  If  properly  done,  they  will  not  be  at  all  greasy, 
but  crisp  without,  and  mealy  within. 

Potatoes,  Frozen. — These  can  be  cured  by  soaking  in  water  3 
days  before  cooking. 

Rust-Spots,  To  remove  from  cloth. — Wet  the  spots  of  iron- 
rust  on  muslin  or  white  dress-goods  thoroughly  with  lemon-juice, 
then  lay  in  the  hot  sun  to  dry.  Repeat  the  same  if  the  color  is 
not  removed  by  one  application.  When  dry,  rinse  in  clear,  cold 
water.  Lemon-juice  can  notbe  used  on  colored  goods,  as  it  will 
take  out  printed  colors  as  well  as  stains.  It  will  rernove  all  kinds 
<'f  stains  from  white  goods. 

Ring,  To  remove,  when  tight  on  the  finger. — In  case  a  finger- 
ring  becomes  too  tight  to  pass  the  joint  of  the  finger,  the  finger 
should  first  be  held  in  cold  water  to  reduce  any  swelling  or  infiam- 
mation.  Then  wrap  a  rag  soaked  in  hot  water  around  the  ring  to 
expand  the  metal,  and  lastly  soap  the  finger.  A  needle  threaded 
with  strong  silk  can  then  be  passed  between  the  ring  and  finger, 
and  a  person  holding  the  two  ends  and  pulling  the  silk,  while 
sliding  it  around  the  periphery  of  the  ring,  will  readily  remove 
the  latter.     Another  method  is  to  pass  a  piece  of  sewing-silk  un- 


246  HOUSEHOLD    HINTS. 

der  the  ring,  and  wind  the  thread  iu  pretty  close  spirals  aud  close- 
ly around  the  finger  to  the  end — that  below  the  ring — and  begin 
unwinding. 

Rice,  To  boil. — The  way  they  boil  rice  in  India  is  as  follows  : 
Into  a  saucei)au  of  3  quarts  water,  when  boiling,  throw  a  table- 
spoonful  of  salt  ;  then  put  in  1  pint  rice,  previously  well  washed 
in  cold  water.  Let  it  boil  20  minutes,  throw  out  in  a  colander, 
drain,  and  put  back  in  tlie  saucepan,  which  should  be  stood  near 
the  fire  for  several  minutes. 

Rain- Water,  To  preserve  sweet. — A  drachm  of  pounded  alum 
to  a  gallon  of  water  is  sufficient.  After  24  hours,  the  water  will 
be  cleansed.  All  wooden  vessels  to  hold  water  should  be  cliarred 
inside.  If  a  mixture  in  the  proportion  of  ^  lb.  of  lime,  made  into 
a  paste,  and  added  to  a  spoonful  of  powdered  alum,  be  put  into  200 
gallons  of  water,  it  will  soften  the  water,  and  precipitate  vegeta- 
ble and  other  matter. 

--  Rats,  Bait  for. — Put  a  drop  of  rhodium  oil  on  a  bit  of  cheese  or 
meat.     These  animals  detest  chloride  of  lime  and  coal-tar. 

,  Rats,  To  catch. — Cover  a  common  barrel  with  stifl'  paper,  tying 
the  edge  around  the  barrel.  Place  a  board  so  that  the  rats  can 
have  easy  access  to  the  top.  Sprinkle  cheese  or  other  bait  on  the 
paper,  and  allow  the  rats  to  eat  there  unmolested  for  several  days. 
Then  place  in  the  bottom  of  the  barrel  a  stone  G  or  7  inches  high, 
and  pour  in  water  until  all  the  stone  is  covered,  except  for  a  space 
about  big  enough  for  one  rat  to  crawl  upon.  Now  replace  the 
paper,  first  cutting  a  cross  in  the  middle.  The  first  rat  that 
ilimbs  on  the  barrel-top  goes  through  into  the  water,  and 
climbs  on  the  stone.  The  paper  comes  back  to  its  original  posi- 
tion, ami  the  second  rat  follows  the  first.  Then  begins  a  fight 
for  the  possession  of  the  dry  place  on  the  stone,  the  noise  of  whicli 
attracts  the  others,  who  share  the  same  fate. 

Razors,  Paper  for  sharpening. — By  merely  wiping  the  mzor  on 
the  paper  to  remove  the  lather  after  shaving,  a  keen  edge  is  main- 
tained without  further  trouble.  The  razor  must  be  well  sharpen- 
ed at  the  outset.  First,  procure  oxide  of  iron  (by  the  addition  of 
carbonate  of  soda  to  a  solution  of  persulphate  of  iron),  well  wash 
the  j)recii)itate,  and  finally  leave  it  of  the  consistence  of  cream. 
Spread  this  over  soft  paper  very  thinly  with  a  soft  brush.  Cut 
the  pa{)er  in  pieces  two  inches  square,  dry,  and  it  is  ready  for 
use. 

RAZOK-STROr,  To  maki-  a. — Select  a  piece  of  satin,  maple,  or 
ro.se  wimkI,  12  inches  long,  IJ  inches  wide, and  findi thick  ;  allow 
'Si  inches  for  length  of  handle.  Half  an  inch  from  where  the 
liandle  begins,  notch  out  the  thickness  of  tin;  leather  so  as  to 
make  it  flush  toward  the  end.  Taper  also  the  thickness  of  the 
leather;  this  precaulirjn  i)revents  the  case  from  tearing  up  tlie 
leather  in  putting  the  strop  in.  Tlicm  round  the  wckmI  very 
slightly,  just  enough  (say  I'j  of  an  inch)  to  keep  from  cutting  by 
the  ruznr  in  stniijping  and  turiiiug  over  tin-  same.  Now  select  a 
priiptT  sizi-d  |)ie(C()f  fine  French  bookbinder's  tiilfrtkiii,  cover  with 
good  whfut  or  ry<-  paste,  then  lay  the  edge  in  tin-  notch,  and  se- 
cur.'  it  in  place  with  a  small  vise,  proceed  to  rul)  it  down   firmly 


HOUSEHOLD    HINTS.  247 

and  as  solid  as  possible  witli  a  tootli-brush  handle  (always  at  liand, 
or  should  be),  and,  after  the  whole  is  thoroughly  dry,  trim  it  neat- 
ly and  make  the  case. 

Sleeplessness,  Cure  for.— Mr.  Frank  Buckland  says  :  "  If  I  am 
much  pressed  with  work,  and  feel  I  shall  not  sleep,  I  eat  two  or 
three  small  onions,  and  the  effect  is  magical.  Onions  are  also 
excellent  things  to  eat  when  much  exposed  to  intense  cold.  In 
salmon-fishing,  common  raw  onions  enable  men  to  bear  the  ice 
and  cold  of  the  semi-frozen  water  much  better  than  spirits,  beer, 
etc.  If  a  person  can  not  sleep,  it  is  because  the  blood  is  in  his 
brain,  not  in  his  stomach  ;  the  remedy,  therefore,  is  obvious  :  call 
the  blood  down  from  the  brain  to  the  stomach.  This  is  to  be 
done  bv  eating  a  biscuit,  a  hard-boiled  egg,  a  bit  of  bread  and 
cheese,"  or  something.  Follow  this  up  with  a  glass  of  wine  or 
milk,  or  even  water,  and  you  will  fall  asleep." 

Smoked  Meat,  To  preserve. — The  keeping  qualities  of  smoked 
meat  do  not  depend  upon  the  amount  of  smoking,  but  upon  the 
uniform  and  proper  drying  of  the  meat.  It  is  of  considerable  ad- 
vantage also  to  roll  the  meat  on  its  removal  from  the  salt,  before 
smoki'ng,  in  sawdust  or  bran.  By  this  means  the  crust  formed  in 
smoking  will  not  be  so  thick  ;  and  if  moisture  condenses  upon 
the  meat  it  remains  in  the  bran,  the  brown  coloring  matter  of  the 
smoke  not  penetrating.  The  best  place  to  keep  the  meat  is  in  a 
smoke-house,  in  which  it  remains  dry  without  drying  out  entirely, 
as  it  does  when  hung  in  a  chimney. 

Spatter- Work  Pictures. — These  are  delicate  designs  in  white 
appearing  upon  a  softly-shaded  ground.  Procure  a  sheet  of  fine 
uncalendered  drawing-paper,  and  arrange  thereon  a  bouquet  of 
pressed  leaves,  trailing  vines,  letters,  or  any  design  which  it  is  de- 
sired to  have  appear  in  white.  Fasten  the  articles  by  pins  stuck 
into  the  smooth  surface,  which  should  be  underneath  the  paper. 
Then  slightly  wet  the  bristles  of  a  tooth  or  other  brush  in  rubbed 
Indian  ink,  or  in  common  black  writing-ink.  and  draw  them  across 
a  stick  in  such  a  manner  that  the  bristles  will  be  bent  and 
then  quickly  released.  This  will  cause  a  fine  spatter  of  ink  upon 
the  paper.  Continue  the  spattering  over  all  the  leaves,  pins, 
and  paper,  allowing  the  centre  of  the  pattern  to  receive  the 
most  ink,  the  edges  shading  off.  When  done,  remove  the  design, 
and  the  forms  will  be  found  reproduced  with  accuracy  on  the 
tinted  ground.  With  a  rustic  wooden  frame,  this  forms  a  very 
cheap  and  pretty  ornament. 

Spoons,  To  remove  stains  on,  caused  by  boiled  eggs. — Rub 
with  common  salt. 

Sponges,  Cleaning. — A  gelatinous  substance  frequently  forms 
in  sponges  after  prolonged  use  in  water.  A  weak  solution  of 
permanganate  of  potassa  will  remove  it.  The  browm  stain  caused 
by  the  chemical  can  begot  rid  of  by  soaking  in  very  dilute  muria- 
tic acid.  An  old  and  dirty  sponge  may  be  cleaned  by  first  soak- 
ing it  for  some  hours  in  a  solution  of  permanganate  of  potassa, 
then  squeezing  it,  and  putting  it  into  a  weak  solution  of  hydro- 
chloric acid,  1  part  acid  to  10  parts  water. 


248  HOUSEHOLD    HINTS. 

Sponges,  To  bleach. —  \Va;<li  first  in  weak  muriatic  acid,  then 
in  cold  water  ;  noak  in  weak  sul[iluuic  acid,  wash  in  water  again, 
and  finally  rinse  in  rose-water. 

^  Stains  of  Acid  Fuuit,  To  remove,  from  the  hands. — Wash 
the  hands  in  clear  water,  wipe  them  lightly,  and  while  they  are 
yet  moist,  strike  a  match  and  shut  your  hands  around  it  so  as  to 
catch  the  smoke,  and  the  stain  will  disappear. 

Starch,  To  prevent  souring  when  boiled. — Add  a  little  sul- 
phate of  copper. 

Stone,  To  remove  moss  from. — This  is  useful  for  the  green 
mould  which  forms  on  marble  and  brown  stone  steps.  Apply  a 
solution  of  75  grains  ot  carbolic  acid  to  1  quart  of  water. 

Stoppers,  Glass,  To  remove. — To  move  a  tight  glass  stopper, 
hold  the  neck  of  the  bottle  to  a  fiame,  or  take  two  turns  of  a  string 
and  seesaw  it.  The  heat  engendered  expands  the  neck  of  the 
bottle  before  the  expansion  reaches  the  stopper. 

Stove-IIolks  in  Walls. — See  that  these  openings  for  the 
pipes  are  protected  by  good  tin  covers  alter  the  stoves  are  taken 
down.     Do  not  stuff  rags  in. 

Straw  MATTiN(i,  Washing, — Use  a  cloth  dampened  in  salt, 
water.  Indian  meal  sprinkled  over  it  and  thoroughly  swept  out 
will  also  cleanse  it  finely. 

Styptic  Paper,  for  stopping  the  bleeding  of  small  wounds. — 
Mix  gum  benzoin  (best  quality),  1  lb.;  rock  alum,  1  lb.;  water,  4^ 
gals.  Boil  in  a  tin  vessel  for  4  hours,  replacing  the  water  lost  by 
evaporation.  Saturate  paper  with  the  solution,  dry  carefully,  and 
brush  over  with  a  concentrated  solution  of  perchloride  of  iron. 
Keep  in  a  water-proof  and  air-tight  case. 

Safk,  Home-made  fire-proof. — The  best  is  a  hole  in  the  ground 
well  lined  with  brick  and  cement. 

V  SniHT-BosOMS,  Glossing, — Take  2  ozs.  of  fine  white  gum-ara- 
bic powder,  put  it  in  a  jjitcher,  and  pour  on  a  pint  or  more  of  wa- 
ter, and  then,  having  covered  it,  let  it  stand  all  night.  In  the 
morning,  pour  it  carefully  from  tln^  dregs  intn  a  clean  bottle,  cork, 
and  keep  it  for  use.  A  teaspoonful  of  gum-water  stirred  in  a 
l)int  of  starcli.made  in  the  usual  way,  will  giver  to  lawns,  white 
or  printed,  a  lf>nk  of  newness  when  notliing  else  can  risstore  them, 
after  they  have  hft-n  washed. 

Shoes,  Bronzing. — Black  shoes  may  be  bronzed  by  a  strong 
solution  of  aniline  red  in  alcohol. 

SifoKs,  Black  varnish  for. — Take  10  parts,  by  weight,  of  shellac, 
and  ")  of  turpentine.  Dissolve  in  40  jiarts  alcohol,  in  which  fluid 
should  be  previously  dissolved  1  part  extract  of  logwood,  with 
some-  neutral  diromate  of  potassa  and  snlphati^  of  indigo.  This 
varnish  is  to  be  kipt  in  well-stopjiered  bottles. 

SiDKWALKS,  Slii)i)ery. — Put  on  hot   sand  instead  of  ash(!B. 

Silk,  Washing. —Tlie  way  to  wash  silk  is  to  spn^ad  it  Hinootlr 
ly  upon  a  cleiin  lioaid,  ml)  whili^  soap  ujjon  it,  ami  brush  it  wit'i 
a  clean  hand  brush. 

SiLVKIt,  To  chsan.  —  A  strong  solution  of  hyposulphite  of  soda  is 
uhhIuI  for  this  puriM)H(;. 


HOUSEHOLD    HINTS.  249 

Silk,  etc.,  To  clean. — A  teaspoouful  of  powdered  borax  dis- 
solved in  1  qt.  tepid  water  is  good  for  cleaning  old  black  dresses 
of  silk,  cashmere,  or  alpaca. 

Silver-Plate,  To  keep  bright.— Warm  the  articles,  and  coat 
carefully  over  with  thin  collodion  diluted  with  alcohol,  using  a 
wide  soft  brush  for  the  purpose. 

Sink-Spouts,  To  thaw  frozen. — Place  one  end  of  a  piece  of  lead 
pipe  against  the  ice  to  be  thawed,  and  then  through  a  funnel  in 
the  upper  end  pour  boiling  water.  Keep  the  pipe  constantly 
against  the  ice,  and  a  foot  or  more  per  minute  can  be  penetrated. 
In  order  to  thaw  out  water-pipes  that  become  frozen  and  are  inac- 
cessible, the  plan  used  by  New-York  plumbers  is  to  surround 
small  india-rubber  tubing  with  coiled  wire  so  as  to  stiffen  it  and 
admit  of  its  being  inserted  far  into  the  pipe.  Tlu-ough  the  tube  a 
current  of  steam  from  a  small  boiler  over  a  charcoal  furnace  is 
allowed  to  pass.  This  acts  very  quickly,  except  when  the  pipe 
takes  a  very  irregular  course,  in  which  case  there  is  no  remedy  ex- 
cept to  dig  down  into  the  earth  or  break  out  walls  until  the  pipe 
can  be  reached,  and  thawed  by  the  direct  application  of  heat. 

Soap,  Adulteration  of,  by  starch.— This  is  detected  by  dissolv- 
ing the  soap  in  alcohol,  which  leaves  the  starch  behind. 

Soap,  Gall,  To  make. — Gall  soap,  excellent  for  washing  silks 
and  ribbons,  may  be  made  by  heating  1  lb.  cocoanut-oil  to  60° 
Fahr. ,  into  which  |  lb.  caustic  soda  is  gradually  stirred.  To  this 
I  lb.  Venice  turpentine,  previously  warmed  in  another  vessel,  is 
added.  The  kettle  is  allowed  to  stand  for  four  hours,  subject  to 
a  gentle  heat,  after  which  the  fire  is  increased  until  the  contents 
are  perfectly  clear.  One  pound  ox-gall,  followed  by  2  lbs.  castile- 
soap,  is  then  mixed  in,  and  the  whole  allowed  to  cool,  when  it 
may  be  cut  into  cakes. 

Soap,  Habd,  To  prevent  crumbling. — Dip  the  bars  in  a  mixture 
of  resin-soap,  beef-tallow,  and  wax. 

Soap,  Home-made. — Soap-making  is  not  an  easy  process  ;  some- 
times the  ashes  are  poor,  or  the  right  proportions  of  lye  and 
grease  are  not  used  ;  at  other  times  the  soap  appears  to  be  good 
when  put  up,  but  changes  entirely  after  standing  a  few  days. 
The  last  trouble  usually  arises  from  getting  the  soap  too  strong 
and  diluting  with  water.  If  very  strong,  it  will  be  thin  and  dark  ; 
and  by  adding  cold  water  and  thoroughly  stirring,  the  color  is 
changed  many  shades  lighter  and  the  mass  thickened,  giving  it 
the  appearance  of  a  No.  1  article,  while  in  reality  it  is  very  poor. 
Hickory-ashes  are  the  best  for  soap-making,  but  those  from  sound 
beach,  maple,  or  almost  any  kind  of  hard  wood  except  oak,  will 
answer  Avell.  A  common  barrel,  set  upon  an  inclined  platform, 
makes  a  very  good  leach  ;  but  one  made  of  boards  set  in  a 
trough  in  V-shape  is  better,  for  the  strength  of  the  ashes  is  better 
obtained,  and  it  may  be  taken  to  pieces  when  not  in  use,  and  put 
away.  First,  in  the  bottom  of  the  leach,  put  a  few  sticks  ;  over 
them  spread  a  piece  of  carpet  or  woolen  cloth,  which  is  much 
better  than  straw  ;  put  on  a  few  inches  of  ashes,  and  then  from  4 
to  8  qts.  lime  ;  fill  with  moistened  ashes,  and  pack  well  down. 
Pack  the  finest  in  the  centre.  It  is  difficult  to  obtain  the  full 
strength  of  ashes  in  a  barrel  without  removing  them  after  a  day's 


250  HOUSEHOLD    HINTS. 

leaching,  and  mixing  tliem  up  and  reitlacinii,-.  Tlie  top  should  be 
first  thrown  (jff  and  new  ashes  added  to  make  up  the  proper  quan- 
tity. Use  boiling  water  for  second  leaching.  Take  about  4  gal- 
lons lye,  and  boil  up  thoroughly  with  12  lbs.  clear  grease,  then 
add  the  lye  as  it  is  obtained,  keeping  a  slow  tire  and  stirring  often 
until  you  have  a  barrel  of  soap.  After  boiling  the  grease  and  4 
gallons  lye  together,  it  may  be  put  in  a  barrel  and  the  rest  of  the 
lye  added  there.  This  will  form  good  soap  if  frequently  stirred  ; 
but  the  heating  process  is  the  best,  when  weather  and  time  will 
permit. 

Tattoo-Marks  on  the  Skin,  To  remove. — Blister  the  part  with 
a  plaster  a  little  larger  than  the  mark  ;  then  keep  the  place  open 
for  a  week  with  an  ointment  ;  finally,  dress  it  to  get  well.  As  the 
new  skin  grows,  the  tattoo-marks  will  disappear. 

Tau-Spots,  To  remove. — Butter  will  remove  tar-spots.  Soap 
and  water  will  afterwaid  take  out  the  grease-stain. 

Tea-Kettle,  To  prevent  rust  forming  inside  a. — Keep  an  oyster- 
'  shell  in  the  bottom  of  the  kettle  ;  and  when  water  is  wanted, 
pour  off  without  agitating  the  vessel.     Be  careful  also  not  to  let 
the  water  stand  in  the  vessel  when  not  in  use. 

Teeth,  Extracting,  Simple  method  of,  for  children. — The  ope- 
ration consists  in  simply  slipping  a  rubber  ring  over  the  tooth  and 
forcing  it  gently  under  the  edge  of  the  gum.  The  patient  is 
then  dismissed,  and  told  not  to  remove  the  a])pendage,  which  in  a 
few  days  loosens  the  tooth,  and  causes  it  to  fall  out. 

V  Tin.  Scouring. — Kerosene  and  powdered  lime,  whiting,  or  wood- 
ashes,  w-ill  scour  tins  with  the  least  labor. 

vToothache — Saturate  a  bit  of  cotton  wool  in  a  strong  solution 
of  ammonia,  and  apply  it  immediately  to  the  affected  tooth. 
\^  Tubs  and  Pails,  to  prevent  shrinking  of. — Saturate  with  gly- 
cerine. 

Vegetables,  To  wash. — Vegetables  should  never  be  washed 
until  immediately  before  prepared  for  the  table.  Lettuce  is  made 
alnir)st  wortlilcss  in  liavor  by  (li])i)iiig  it  in  water  some  hours  be- 
fore it  is  served,  i'otatoes  suff'cr  even  more  than  other  vegetal)les 
througli  the  washing  [iroceas.  They  shoukl  not  be  j)ut  in  water 
till  just  ready  for  boiling. 

Vkntilation  ok  Sleei'INO-Rooms,  Simple  ))lan  for. — A  ])iece 
of  wood  ;{  ill.  liigh,  and  exactly  as  long  as  the  breadth  of  the 
window,  is  to  be  ])r(!i)ared.  Let  the  sasli  l)e  now  raised,  the  slip 
of  wood  placetl  on  the  sill,  and  tlus  sash  drawn  chjsely  upon  it. 
If  the  slip  has  l)een  w(!ll  fitted,  tliere  will  be  no  draft  in  conse- 
<|iient'e  of  tliis  displacement  of  the  sash  at  its  lower  i)arl.  ;  but  the 
top  of  tlie  lower  sash  will  overlap  the  liottoni  of  tlie  ii])per  one, 
and  l)etw(;en  tlie  two  bars  prr]>en(liciil!ir  currents  of  air,  not  felt 
as  draft,  will  enter  and  leave  the  room. 

ViNEfiAH,  'i'o  make,  from  molasHes. — Vinegar  may  be  made  by 
mixing  Ki  ](arts  pun^  water,  1  part  syrup  <>f  molasses,  and  1  part 
baker's  yeast  at  a  temperature  of  al)out  HO  Kalir. ,  and  k<^epingtlie 
<-otnpoun<l  in  a  warm  atniosi)here  from  ten  to  thirty  days.  A 
little  old  vinegar,  udijed  im  tlie  sei-oml  or  third  il;iy,  will  aid  the 
proceHH, 


I 


HOUSEHOLD    HINTS.  251 

Vinegar,  Raspberry. — Pour  over  1  lb.  bruised  berries,  1  qt.  of 
the  best  cider  vinegar  ;  nextdsiy,  strain  the  liquor  on  1  lb.  of  fresh 
ripe  raspberries,  bruise  them  also,  and  on  the  following  day  do 
the  same.  Do  not  squeeze  the  fruit,  only  drain  the  liquor 
thoroughly.  Put  the  juice  into  a  stone  jar,  and  add  sugar  in  pro- 
portion of  1  lb.  to  a  pint.  When  the  sugar  is  melted,  place  the 
jars  in  a  saucepan  of  water,  which  heat ;  skim  the  liqui>r,  and 
after  it  has  simmered  for  a  few  minutes,  remove  from  the  fire, 
cover,  and  bottle. 

Washing-Elite. — Twenty  lbs.  white  potato  starch,  20  lbs. 
wheat  starch,  20  lbs.  Prussian  blue,  2  lbs.  indigo  carmine,  and  2  lbs. 
finely-ground  gum-arabic  are  mixed  in  a  trough,  with  the  gradual 
addition  of  sufficient  water  to  form  a  half-fluid,  homogeneous 
mass,  which  is  then  poured  out  on  a  board  with  strips  tacked  to 
the  edges.  It  is  then  allowed  to  dry  in  a  heated  room  until  it 
does  not  run  together  again  when  cut.  It  is  next  cat,  by  a 
suitable  cutter,  into  little  cubes,  and  allowed  to  dry  perfectly. 
They  are  finished  by  lieing  placed  in  a  revolving  drum,  with  a 
suitable  quantity  of  dry  and  finely  pulverized  Paris  blue,  until 
they  have  a  handsome  appearance.  The  cost  is  about  12  cents 
per  pound. 

V  Washing  Colored  Fabrics. — Before  washing  almost  any 
colored  fabrics,  soak  them  in  water,  to  each  gallon  of  which  a 
spoonful  of  ox-gall  has  been  added.  A  teacupful  of  lye  in  a  pail 
of  water  is  said  to  improve  the  color  of  black  goods.  A  strong 
tea  of  common  hay  will  improve  the  color  of  French  linens. 
Vinegar  in  the  rinsing  water,  for  pink  and  green,  will  brighten 
those  colors  ;  and  soda  answers  the  same  end  for  both  purple 
and  blue. 

Wall-Paper,  Removing  stains  on.'— Stains  on  wall-paper  can 
be  cut  out  with  a  sharp  penknife,  and  a  piece  of  paper  so  nicely 
inserted  that  no  one  can  see  tlie  mtch. 

Warts,  Cure  for. — Rubbing  warts,  night  and  morning,  with  a 
moistened  piece  of  nauriate  of  ammonia  is  said  to  cause  their 
disappearance  without  pain  or  a  scar  resulting. 

H  Water-Closets,  Ventilating  pipes  for. — Extend  pipes  from 
water-closet  traps,  or  one  (larger)  from  the  main  waste-pipe,  into 
the  nearest  chimneys.  The  pestilent  gases  will  thus  be  carried 
off  instead  of  being  allowed  to  escape  into  the  house. 
^  Water,  Hard,  To  soften. — Boil  or  add  a  small  quantity  of 
quicklime  mixed  to  a  cream  with  water. 

Water,  To  purify,  from  smoke. — Enough  permanganate  of 
pota?sa  is  added  to  give  the  faintest  possible  tinge  to  the  water. 
After  standing  24  hours,  the  impurities  will  all  be  precipitated. 
^^  Wounds,  Cut. — A  wound  made  by  a  knife  or  other  sharp  in- 
strument is  best  healed  by  bringing  the  edges  together  and  put- 
ting on  a  bandage  which  "will  not  exclude  the  air.  Nature  will 
work  the  cure,  if  the  person  be  healthy,  much  better  than  anv 
salve  or  ointment. 

Water-Lilies,  To  raise.— Water-lilies  may  be  raised  about 
one's  house  by  the  following  method  :  Sink  in  the  ground  the 
half  of  an  old  cask,  and  cover  the  bottom  with  peat  and  swamp 


252  HOUSEHOLP    HINTS. 

mud,  and  then  fill  witli  water.     Dig  the  lily  roots  early  in  the 
spring,  and  place  them  in  the  earth  at  the  bottom  of  the  tub. 

>  Windows,  Washing. — In  washing  windows,  a  narrow-bladed 
wooden  knite,  sharply  pointed,  will  take  out  the  dust  that  hardens 
in  the  corners  of  the  sash.  Dry  whiting  will  polish  the  glass, 
which  should  first  be  washed  with  weak  black  tea  mixed  with  a 
little  alcohol.     Save  the  tea-leaves  for  the  purpose. 

Wine,  Preservation  of,  by  heating. — Wine  maj'  be  kept  with- 
out altering  in  quality  for  an  indefinite  period  of  time,  in  all 
climates,  after  ha%'ing  been  first  submitted  to  the  action  of  artifi- 
cial heat.  The  temperature  to  which  it  must  be  raised  is  from 
131'  to  140"  Fahr.  If  the  wine  does  not  contain  naturally  more 
than  10  or  12  per  cent  of  alcohol,  it  is  best  to  add  li  per  cent 
more  before  the  shipping  of  it.  The  wine  is  to  be  heated  by 
steam  and  artificially  cooled. 

Yeast,  Compressed. — Previously  malted  barley  and  rye  are 
ground  up  and  mixed,  next  put  into  water  at  a  temperature  of 
G5°  to  75'  ;  after  a  few  hours  the  saccharine  liquid  is  decanted 
from  the  dregs,  and  the  clear  liquid  brought  into  a  state  of  fer- 
mentation by  tlie  aid  of  some  yeast.  The  fermentation  becomes 
very  strong  ;  and  by  the  force  of  the  carbonic  acid  which  is 
evolved,  the  yeast  globules  are  carried  to  the  surface  of  the 
liquid,  and,  forming  a  thick  scum,  are  removed  by  a  skimmer, 
then  placed  on  cloth  filters,  drained,  washed  with  a  little  distilled 
water,  and  next  pressed  into  any  desired  shape  by  means  of 
hydraulic  pressure,  and  covered  with  a  strong  and  well-woven 
canvas.  It  keeps  from  8  to  14  days,  according  to  the  season,  and 
is  excellent. 

Yeast  for  Hot  Climates. — Boil  2  ozs.  best  hops  in  4  qte.  water 
for  A  hour  ;  strain  and  cool  to  new-milk  warmth.  Put  in  ^  lb. 
sugar,  1  tablf 'Spoonful  of  salt  ;  beat  up  1  lb.  of  the  best  flour  with 
some  of  tht!  liquor,  and  mix  all  well  together.  Let  it  stand  for  3 
days,  and  on  the  third  day  add  3  lbs.  mashed  and  boiled  jjota- 
toes.  On  the  next  day,  strain,  and  it  is  ready  for  use.  This  will 
keep  for  2  or  3  months  in  a  moderately  cool  place.  The  yeast  is 
very  strong  ;  half  the  usuiU  quantity  necessary  for  baking  is 
sufficient. 

Yeast,  Vienna. — Vienna  bread  and  Vienna  beer  are  said  to  be 
the  best  in  the  world.  Hoth  owe  their  superiority  to  the  yeast 
used,  which  is  ])rep»ro(l  in  the  following  nuinner  :  Indian  corn, 
barley,  and  rye  (all  sprouting)  are  powdered  and  mixed,  and  then 
macfrated  in  water  at  a  temperature  of  from  149'  to  Iti?  Fahr. 
Saccharification  takes  jilace  in  a  few  liours,  when  the  liiiuor  is 
racked  off  and  allowed  to  clear,  and  fermentation  is  set  uj)  by  the 
help  of  a  minute  quantity  of  any  ordinary  yeast.  Carbonic  acid 
is  disengaged  during  the  process  with  so  much  rapidity  that  the 
globules  of  yeast  are  thrown  up  by  the  gas,  and  remain  floating 
on  the  surface,  where  tiiey  form  a  thick  scum.  Tlie  latter  is 
carefully  removed,  and  constitutes  the  best  and  purest  yeast, 
which,  when  drained  and  compressed  in  a  liydraiilic  press,  can  be 
kei)t  from  H  to  1.1  days,  according  to  the  season. 


s 

•5J 


AND 


Mechanical  Expert 


Mxrss  MiGM^r  FiTTmm  a^ys  Fi^yismms 


SPECIAL  TOOLS,  MACHINES  i  APPLIANCES 


IVI^DE     TO      ORDER, 


J\^eiv  Manufcwtovies  vut  iiito  covivlete  worJdng 
operation  under  personal  supervision. 


Address, 

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NEW-YOIJK   CITY 


RICHARD  I  BUEL, 


T 


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AM) 

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In  expert  rases  of  any  kind. 


SHELDON'S    AUXILIARY 


NJ 


IJ 


i 


A  new  Folding  Stool,  of  strong  and  simple  construction,  easily  attached 
to  the  regular  seats  of  street  cars.  Adds  fifty  per  cent  to  the  seating  capacity 
of  the  car,  and  prevents  the  passage  being  crowded  by  passengers  standing. 


When  in  use,  as  shown  in  engraving,  does  not  interfere  with  people  al- 
ready seated,  and  when  out  of  use  can  be  folded  entirely  out  of  the  way. 
Compact,  durable,  and  cheap.    Equally  well  adapted  to  omnibuses,  or  for  any 
locality  where  temporary  seats  are  needed.    Patented  Aug.  3d,  1875. 
Address  the  inventor, 

CEVEDRA     B.     SHEEI>OX, 

No,  7  State  Street,  New-York  City. 


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